Ecological Design for Urban Areas: A Model of Resilience and Resource Efficiency in Jakarta, Indonesia
Article information
Abstract
Background and objective
Development in Jakarta tends to focus on physical infrastructure expansion and commercial growth, while ecological aspects and residents' quality of life are given less attention. Many projects do not fully consider their impact on microclimate, air quality, and outdoor comfort, which then worsens pollution, increases heat load, and heightens psychological stress in dense and congested urban centers. This study aims to examine the ecological comfort conditions of Jakarta and build public awareness of the importance of residential design in responding to urban ecological challenges.
Methods
The study used three types of environmental comfort tests, namely thermal comfort, visual comfort, and auditory comfort tests, which were measured in real time at 20 locations in five areas of Jakarta to identify variations in urban ecological conditions. In addition, a perception survey of 170 respondents was conducted to understand how residents feel about the comfort, accessibility, and visual quality of their environment.
Results
The results of the third comfort test showed that all parameters were above Indonesian National Standard (SNI) threshold, indicating that the environmental quality of Jakarta was not yet able to meet comfort requirements. Even public spaces have become exhausting and unsustainable areas for the comfort of users and the surrounding urban ecosystem. Meanwhile, perception surveys reveal significant variations in residents' experiences regarding comfort, accessibility, and visual quality.
Conclusion
This study underscores the importance of developing tropical eco-design for simple housing by optimizing ventilation, natural lighting, trees and vegetation, as well as the use of natural materials and variations in floor height on limited sites. Ecologically informed tropical housing design can reduce heat loads, improve air quality, and create calmer living spaces despite the noisy and densely populated urban environment.
Introduction
Jakarta, the largest city in Indonesia, faces multidimensional challenges ranging from population density, high mobility, air pollution, to an imbalance between built-up areas and green spaces (Kompas, 2023a; Detik, 2022). Data shows that around 7,5 million people commute every day, and the majority still use private vehicles (Detik, 2024; Kompas, 2024). This situation puts enormous pressure on infrastructure, exacerbates traffic congestion, and contributes to high levels of air pollution. Sustainable cities require reducing dependence on motor vehicles and providing integrated public transportation, as this will have an impact on the gap between the need for livable cities and its realization (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999).
In addition, Jakarta's economic growth and physical development have necessitated the conversion of residential land and open spaces into business areas, resulting in green spaces that should cover 30% of the city's area as mandated by Law No. 26 of 2007 falling far short of the target. Data show that green spaces in Jakarta as of November 2024 only reached 6.48% (Kompas, 2024). The lack of green open spaces has an impact on ecological functions such as rainwater absorption and microclimate control (Gill et al. 2007; Zhang et al. 2015). The dominance of high-rise building and monotonous transportation infrastructure also contributes to a decline in visual and ecological harmony. Informal settlements that have sprung up along riverbanks and marginal land reveal another side of urban planning that has not been fully able to accommodate the need for adequate living space evenly. The actual conditions of dense settlements in Jakarta can be observed in the Tanah Tinggi area, Central Jakarta. The government has been developing this slum area since 2015. However, there are parts that do not meet ideal residential standards, particularly in terms of distance between buildings, population density, road access, and adequate public facilities (Widyawati, 2023).
Air quality in Jakarta is another crucial issue. The concentration of PM 2.5 particulates was recorded at an annual average of 25 microgram/m3, far above the WHO safe threshold of 5 microgram/m3 (Kompas, 2023b). Pollution, which mostly comes from motor vehicles and industrial activities, causes haze that is harmful to health, obscures the city's visual appearance, reduces visibility, and obscures natural silhouettes such as the sky and mountain contours on the horizon (Jakarta.go.id, 2023). This condition limits the community's visual ecological experience of the city, making Jakarta's environment appear gloomy and less beautiful. The public's perception of the comfort and safety of the city suggests that many residents feel that urban planning is not yet ideal. The high threat of pollution and environmental quality, as well as long travel times due to traffic congestion, exacerbate the psychological stress of Jakarta residents. Although the government has implemented various policies such as transportation development, settlement planning, and public space development, their implementation has not yet reached the standards of an ideal city.
To address the complexity of Jakarta's urban planning, in the sustainability design approach, urban development should balance social, environmental, and economic aspects with the principle of resource efficiency (McDonough and Braungart, 2002; Beatley, 2000). However, Jakarta's development tends to focus on physical and commercial infrastructure, often neglecting ecological aspects. Furthermore, in relation to climate change and energy transition, the built infrastructure must take into account the environmental and ecological impacts (Schmutz and Moog, 2018). Infrastructure and landscape are the design frameworks that guide development by facilitating functional, social, and ecological integration (Nijhuis and Jauslin, 2015). Meanwhile, to bridge the gap between urban planning policies and community behavior, environmental communication strategies play an important role in conveying the urgency of ecological issues and building community participation (Cox, 2013). This study provides a framework for specific data codification, defines cause and effect relationships, and consolidates several possibilities for addressing the complexity of issues in Jakarta.
Literature Review
Ecological Studies in Sustainable Design
The application of sustainability design in urban planning stems from the awareness that modern cities are complex systems that accommodate environmental, social, and economic pressures simultaneously. Sustainable design emphasizes the importance of integrating ecological functions, social comfort, and resource efficiency in urban space design. Sustainable design has evolved from a product focus to systemic design involving social innovation and environmental governance (Ceschin and Gaziulusoy, 2016).
Cities designed based on the principles of sustainability design place the landscape as an active component in their ecological systems. Barış and Kaygusız (2023) explain that sustainable urban landscape planning needs to emphasize ecological connectivity, green corridors, and energy efficiency, to make sure that cities can adapt to climate change and environmental degradation. This approach is in line with Dizdaroğlu’s (2022) view, which emphasizes the importance of developing design criteria that take into account biodiversity, natural drainage systems, and human comfort. In practice, sustainable urban landscapes combine social and ecological functions simultaneously, creating spaces that are friendly to both humans and nature.
Ecological design studies essentially emphasize how the design process serves human needs while taking natural systems into consideration. Many failures in applied ecology are not due to flawed science, but rather designs that fail to integrate ecological principles (Ross et al., 2015). On the other hand, sustainability design focuses on meeting current needs without compromising the ability of future generations, while considering social, economic, and environmental aspects in an integrated manner. The correlation between ecological design and sustainable design arises when ecological design provides a conceptual framework for the realization of sustainability design through an understanding of ecosystem functions that can be applied to spaces and products. Ecological design specifically refers to the inclusion of biodiversity in the environment, which is an important aspect of sustainability (Hernandez-Santin et al., 2022). From an urban policy and planning perspective, combining ecological design with sustainable design means adopting a more holistic and long-term approach, taking into account environmental, social, and economic impacts.
Ecological Turn in Visual Communication Design
The ecological concept views human perception of the environment as being shaped by interactions between visual, spatial, and ecological factors. According to Gibson (1979) in his theory of ecological perception, humans do not merely view the world passively. Humans actively respond to the qualities of the environment offered by visual stimuli such as light, texture, and color. This principle is adapted in visual communication design to create spaces and messages that are in harmony with human perception of visual comfort. In this case, visual communication design has undergone a paradigm shift from merely being a medium for conveying aesthetic messages to becoming a means of ecological communication that mediates the relationship between humans, space, and the environment. This approach is known as the ecological turn in visual communication design, which places design as part of the urban life system.
The ecological turn approach in visual communication design becomes increasingly interesting when design is collaborated as a social organism in building public ecological awareness through symbols, colors, typography, and visual forms that represent the balance between humans and nature (Skliarenko et al., 2022). Designers are required to understand the ecological impact of every visual decision made, from materials and production processes to the resulting visual narrative. Visual ecology itself is closely related to multisensory comfort, including thermal and auditory comfort, which shape the overall perception of a space. Yu and Chen’s (2023) research found that integrating natural visual elements (such as wood textures, vegetation, or water) into public space design can improve thermal comfort perception and reduce psychological noise by up to18%.
Designs that take ecology into account serve as mediators between the human body and its environment. Within the framework of sustainable urban development, the application of visual ecology is an important strategy for creating a healthy, comfortable spatial experience that is oriented towards the psychophysical well-being of city residents. Shalal (2024) explains that designers have the persuasive ability to build a culture of sustainability through symbols and visual narratives. Elements such as natural colors, organic compositions, and environmental imagery can increase people's ecological empathy.
Environmental Communication Strategy
Ecological problems and the visual experience of Jakarta residents show that urban planning challenges cannot be solved through physical intervention alone. The complex conditions of the urban environment require an approach that also targets the perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors of the community.
According to the OECD (1999), environmental communication is a planned and strategic process that aims to support policy development and program implementation capable of promoting environmental sustainability. The OECD emphasizes that there is a "long road between what is said and what is done". This means that the conveyed information is not automatically heard, understood, or translated into action. In addition, people do not always associate their behavior with its impact on environmental quality. To bridge this gap, the OECD offers the 3R communication principle, which consists of:
1. Responsible communication, which emphasizes the importance of consistency between messages and practices. Environmental campaigns are more credible if the institutions communicating them also demonstrate consistent behavior.
2. Rational communication, which requires messages based on data and ecological logic, to ensure that the public understands the relationship between individual actions and their impacts.
3. Relevant communication, which requires messages that are directly related to residents' experiences and life contexts.
Furthermore, an effective environmental communication strategy must begin with a clear, data-driven diagnosis, as demonstrated in the survey of Jakarta residents' perceptions in this study. Diagnosis serves to identify perceptions, barriers, and community needs. After diagnosis, communication planning can be formulated using the SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-bound) approach to ensure that communication objectives can be targeted and measurable.
Essentially, the effectiveness of environmental communication can be measured using various instruments, depending on the medium, campaign objectives, and characteristics of the target group. Commonly used methods include satisfaction surveys of target groups (conducted on all participants or on a representative sample), online research for internet-based campaigns, and audience studies when messages are disseminated via radio or television. In its implementation, environmental communication strategies must include focused and singular message planning, as too many messages reduce effectiveness. The main message can be supplemented with supporting information that reinforces the narrative, particularly regarding the themes of pollution, spatial comfort, and improving the city's visual experience.
Research Methods
This study combined objective measurements and perception-based surveys to obtain a comprehensive and valid understanding of environmental conditions and public experiences in urban public spaces. Objectively, the study employed quantitative data derived from thermal, lighting, and noise measurements collected at 20 locations representing the five administrative municipalities of Jakarta, namely Central Jakarta, North Jakarta, West Jakarta, South Jakarta, and East Jakarta (Fig. 1). Residential areas, parks, and road corridors were selected as sample sites since these land-use types represent the principal spectrum of urban land use, exhibiting varying degrees of ecological pressure and environmental function. Residential areas reflect the intensity of human activity and microclimatic modification; parks serve as providers of ecosystem services such as temperature regulation, air quality improvement, and biodiversity habitat; while road corridors act as strong indicators of ecological stress due to pollution, noise, and habitat fragmentation (McDonnell and Pickett, 1990; Forman et al., 2003; Tzoulas et al., 2007).
presents a map showing 20 sampling locations representing the five administrative regions of Jakarta.
For thermal measurements, the study employed wireless digital thermo-hygrometers that provide outdoor temperature and humidity readings. The selection of wireless digital thermo-hygrometers, lux meters, and A-weighted decibel units (dB(A)) was based on their suitability for capturing both the physical characteristics of the environment and human perceptual responses. Wireless digital thermo-hygrometers were used to simultaneously measure air temperature and relative humidity with adequate accuracy (typically ±1 °C and ±3 % RH), while allowing flexible placement across diverse outdoor settings such as urban parks, residential neighborhoods, and heavily trafficked road edges without cable constraints. To assess visual comfort, the study focused on lighting conditions using lux meters equipped with built-in sensors. Lux meters were employed to measure natural light intensity in lux units, which are relevant for evaluating visual quality and comfort in outdoor environments, particularly in green open spaces and residential areas strongly influenced by solar position and surface reflectance. For auditory data, noise intensity was measured using A-weighted decibel units, or dB(A). Noise levels were expressed in dB(A) as this unit adjusts frequency weighting to match human auditory sensitivity, making it the most representative measure for assessing the impacts of traffic noise and urban activities on environmental comfort.
The reliability of the findings was determined by the clarity of instrument specifications, measurement accuracy, and placement locations, ensuring that each parameter accurately represented real outdoor environmental conditions. Measurement instruments were positioned at heights approximating human stature (±1–1.5 m) at representative points such as areas of park user activity, residential yards or edges, and roadside locations with high traffic density. Measurements were conducted during representative periods (morning, midday, and afternoon) to capture daily variations in temperature, lighting, and noise, and were undertaken under normal weather conditions during the observation season to ensure that the data reflected environmental conditions commonly experienced by the public. This approach aligns with environmental measurement practices recommended in studies of thermal comfort, lighting, and urban noise (ISO 7726; ISO/CIE 8995-1; ISO 1996-1).
In addition to objective measurements, a questionnaire-based survey was conducted to assess public perceptions of urban form, public space comfort, air quality, and risk management. Survey questions were formulated and adapted based on sustainable development frameworks that emphasize that urban sustainability should not be assessed solely through physical indicators, but also through public participation and perception (United Nations, 1996). This framework is further supported by studies developing perception-based and quality of life indicators for sustainable cities (Choon et al., 2011), research on the relationships between urban environments, public experience, and urban ecology (Takano, 2003; O’Neill and Simard, 2006), and studies highlighting the role of social perception in sustainability, governance, and urban environmental quality (Lafond and Heritage, 2009; Tan et al., 2018). The research methodology is presented in Fig. 2.
illustrates the research methodology.
The study employed a four point Likert scale (1–4) in the survey for methodological reasons, specifically to eliminate a neutral option and encourage respondents to express clearer attitudinal tendencies toward each statement. Even numbered scales have been shown to be effective in reducing central tendency bias the inclination to select middle category responses which may obscure true attitudes and reduce the discriminative power of the data (Garland, 1991). By requiring respondents to choose between positive and negative categories, the 1–4 scale yields a more informative distribution of responses and enhances the sensitivity of attitudinal and perceptual measurement, particularly in social and behavioral research (Johns, 2005). A total of 170 respondents were selected with consideration given to gender and residential location, representing the five administrative municipalities of Central Jakarta, North Jakarta, West Jakarta, South Jakarta, and East Jakarta. The survey was conducted over a three month period from August to October 2025. The data were subsequently integrated to produce a more comprehensive assessment of Jakarta’s urban environmental conditions.
Results and Discussion
Comfort level data collection was conducted in August, September, and October 2025. To obtain representative data, researchers took samples from 20 locations in five administrative districts, namely Central Jakarta, North Jakarta, West Jakarta, South Jakarta, and East Jakarta. Measurements were taken in clear weather conditions without clouds or rain, and at different times of day (morning, afternoon, evening). The data are presented in Table 1.
Measurements of temperature, humidity, illumination, and noise levels
Thermal Comfort
Thermal comfort is the most fundamental dimension of a livable city, as it is directly related to microclimate conditions that affect residents' daily activities. Measurements of dry temperature at several locations sampled for research show that the range of dry temperatures in the morning is 26°C–29 °C, the range of temperatures at noon is 29°C–31°C, and the range of temperatures in the afternoon is 30°C–31°C. As for humidity measurements, the average humidity in the morning was 74%. However, conditions were different at Ismail Marzuki Park, which had a humidity of 64% at night. During the day, humidity measurements ranged from 73%–74%. At night, humidity measurements varied more, ranging from 69%–74%.
Based on Indonesian National Standard (SNI) 03-6572-2001, the thermal comfort limit in Indonesia, which has a tropical climate, with optimal comfort is between 22.8°C and 25.8°C. Meanwhile, the recommended relative humidity indicator is 40%–60%. Referring to the temperature and humidity measurements in Table 1, the temperature and humidity measurements are outside the comfort range specified by SNI 03-6572-2001. Even at the Penjaringan Urban Forest Park in North Jakarta, the temperature was 29°C. Similarly, at the Gelora Bung Karno Urban Forest Park in Central Jakarta and Cattleya City Park in West Jakarta, humidity levels reached 69%.
When temperature and humidity are outside the thermal comfort range, the human body experiences disturbances in its heat adaptation mechanisms, which directly affect perception and comfort. Excessively high temperatures make it difficult for the body to release heat, causing feelings of heat, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, and emotional changes such as irritability and impatience. Conversely, temperatures that are too low can cause muscle tension, stiffness, and decreased focus. At temperatures above 26°C (78.8°F), human endurance and ability begin to decline, causing discomfort (Graff Zivin et al., 2018).
Similarly, excessive humidity can exacerbate the perception of heat and increase the risk of mold growth and musty odors (Arundel et al., 1986). Meanwhile, excessive dryness can cause dry skin, respiratory problems, and eye irritation (Wolkoff et al., 2021). All of these conditions reduce subjective comfort levels and individual productivity in the workplace, at home, and in public facilities. In the long term, inappropriate temperature and humidity can trigger broader social and behavioral effects. People typically adapt in consumptive ways, such as relying on air conditioning, which increases energy consumption and exacerbates the urban heat island effect (Lundgren and Kjellstrom, 2013; Wen and Lian, 2009). Uncomfortable thermal environmental conditions also have an impact on public health, such as an increase in cases of respiratory diseases, heat stress, sleep disorders, and high blood pressure. Additionally, inequality in access to thermally comfortable spaces can reinforce social disparities between groups that are able to create cool environments and those that are not. Deviations in temperature and humidity from comfort standards not only affect individuals' physiological conditions. These conditions have long-term ecological and social implications for the quality of life of communities (Liu et al., 2023; Felgueiras et al., 2023).
Visual Comfort
Visual comfort in public spaces is greatly influenced by lighting intensity. Inappropriate lighting can alter users' visual perception, sense of security, and comfort. The unit of lighting intensity (illumination) used in this study is the Lux meter (Lux). The results of the lighting intensity measurements are presented in Table 1. Of the 20 sample locations, 13 locations were above 200,000 Lux, 6 locations were in the range of 100,000–200,000 Lux, and only 1 location was below 100,000 Lux, namely Tebet Eco Park in South Jakarta. Based on these measurements, the lighting intensity at 20 locations is well above the lighting standards set out in SNI 7391:2008.
SNI 7391:2008 on Road Lighting Specifications in Urban Areas sets technical standards for lighting to create visual comfort, safety, and energy efficiency in public spaces. This standard regulates the level of illumination according to the function and class of the road, namely 20–50 Lux for primary arterial roads, 10–20 Lux for collector roads, 5–10 Lux for neighborhood roads, and a minimum of 5 Lux for pedestrian areas, city parks, and other open public areas.
The data show that 20 location samples have very high illumination levels, equivalent to the intensity of direct sunlight during the day. Visually and physiologically, lighting at this level can cause extreme glare (disability glare), making it difficult for the eyes to adapt, reducing the ability to see details, and potentially causing retinal damage if exposed directly for long periods of time. Excessively high light intensity in public spaces will interfere with visual comfort, damage the aesthetics of the environment, and cause light pollution that has an impact.
Ironically, measurements taken in city parks also showed high levels of illumination despite being surrounded by many trees. This is most likely caused by the reflection and distribution of artificial light from nearby light sources, such as street lights, decorative lights, commercial buildings, or billboards that reflect light into the park area. Hard surfaces such as walkways, granite floors, or surrounding building walls can also reflect light, causing the Lux meter reading to increase even though the area is visually shaded. In visual ecology, garden lighting should consider the balance between the human need for clear visibility and the sustainability of the visual environment, namely by maintaining illumination intensity within reasonable limits, avoiding light pollution, and adjusting the direction and color of light to harmonize with the natural character of green spaces.
Auditory Comfort
In terms of auditory comfort, this parameter is often overlooked in urban design practices. In fact, environmental noise is one of the factors that lowers the livable city index (Aletta and Kang, 2019). Noise level measurements were taken using a sound level meter. Researchers used A-weighted decibels or dB(A) as the unit of measurement for noise intensity. Referring to SNI 03-6386-2000 and Minister of Environment Decree No. 48 of 1996, the audible comfort limit is generally in the range of 50–55 dB(A) for public spaces and ≤ 50 dB(A) for residential areas or city parks. Values above 60 dB(A) are considered to interfere with human comfort and auditory health.
The noise level measurements in Table 1 show that the average noise level in the park area is in the range of 60–70 dB(A). Only Cempaka Park in East Jakarta has a noise level of 54 dB(A) or below 60 dB(A). Meanwhile, in other locations such as residential areas and highways, noise levels range from 70 dB(A) to 86 dB(A). When noise levels are in the range of 60–70 dB(A), conditions exceed the threshold of human auditory comfort. Noise at this level physiologically triggers an increase in heart rate, muscle tension, and mild stress as the nervous system continually attempts to adjust to the excessive sound stimulus. Psychologically, individuals experience difficulty concentrating, decreased communication skills, and boredom in noisy environments.
Noise levels in the range of 70–86 dB(A) are considered disturbing and have the potential to cause long-term health effects. Continuous exposure to this intensity can result in permanent hearing loss (noise induced hearing loss), sleep disturbances, and an increased risk of heart disease due to chronic physiological stress. In addition, high noise levels can alter the perception of space, making it feel oppressive. The sound of vehicles, machinery, or other loud noises can make an environment feel unwelcoming and cause defensive behavior, such as withdrawing from social activities and shortening visits.
From a visual ecology perspective, high noise levels can disrupt the balance of perception between sound, light, and space. An environment that appears green and peaceful visually will lose its aesthetic and psychological value when accompanied by extreme noise. This lack of synchronization between auditory and visual stimuli reduces the quality of human spatial experience. Public spaces are no longer perceived as calming places. They have become areas that are sensory exhausting and unsustainable for the comfort of users and the surrounding urban ecosystem.
Residents' Perceptions of Jakarta
To determine how residents perceive the city of Jakarta, researchers conducted a survey involving 170 respondents with diverse characteristics. In terms of age, the largest group was in the 35–44 age range, comprising 72 people (42,4%). This group dominates and shows that the majority of respondents are in their productive age phase. Meanwhile, the 18–24 and 45+ age groups each had 35 respondents (20.6%), while the 25–34 age group was represented by 28 respondents (16.5%). This pattern shows age variation, although it tends to be concentrated in the middle aged group (Table 2).
Distribution of respondents by age (N = 170)
When viewed by gender (Table 3), the majority of respondents were male, numbering 117 people (68.8%), while female respondents numbered 53 people (31.2%). In terms of location of daily activities, respondents were spread across five areas of Jakarta. South Jakarta was the area with the highest number of respondents, namely 28 people (16.5%). This was followed by Central Jakarta with 24 respondents (14.1%), and North Jakarta and West Jakarta with 23 respondents each (13.5%). East Jakarta had 72 respondents (42.4%). This distribution indicates that the respondents' activities were relatively evenly spread across various regions, although South Jakarta was slightly more prominent (Table 4). Overall, this data show that the majority of respondents are men of productive age, with activities spread across the entire Jakarta area. This composition is important for understanding the social and demographic context of the study, as factors such as age, gender, and location can influence respondents' behavior patterns and perceptions.
Distribution of respondents by gender (N = 170)
Distribution of respondents by daily activity location (N = 170)
To assess the condition of green open spaces in Jakarta, this study used 17 indicators on a 1–4 Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, 4 = strongly agree). The results of the analysis show that most respondents fell into the "agree" category, although none dominated the "strongly agree" category. In general, the average indicator scores ranged from 1.94 to 2.95, which means that the public's perception of green open spaces in Jakarta tends to be neutral to slightly positive (Table 5).
Average score of perception of green open spaces in Jakarta (N = 170)
The indicator with the highest score was "I often visit and use green open spaces in Jakarta" (mean = 2.95). This finding shows that even though the quality of green open spaces is not yet perfect, the community still uses them for recreational and social activities. In addition, "The government has rapid response risk management and open spaces for evacuation in the event of a disaster" also received a relatively high score (mean = 2.79), indicating trust in the function of green open spaces as part of disaster mitigation. Conversely, the indicators with the lowest scores were "Mobility in Jakarta runs smoothly without significant obstacles" (mean = 1.88) and "The air in Jakarta feels clean" (mean = 1.97). This underscores that air pollution and traffic congestion remain major challenges that affect the comfort of the city. In addition, the aspect of cleanliness is also a concern, as the indicator "Trash is not scattered throughout Jakarta" only scored 2.32.
Several aspects that were relatively well rated were the availability of facilities and infrastructure in city parks (mean = 2.86) and the presence of trees and vegetation, which was considered to be abundant (mean = 2.87). However, indicators related to urban aesthetics, such as "The air feels clean" and "Jakarta's urban planning is not cluttered with advertisements or political party flags", are still below a score of 2.00. This indicates the need for improvements in spatial planning and visual control of the city.
Overall, these results indicate that although the community utilizes green open spaces, the quality of the urban environment requires significant improvement. Efforts to improve are not only related to adding facilities, but also improving cleanliness management, pollution control, and urban mobility management. These findings provide an important basis for the government to formulate more integrated policies in the management of green open spaces.
Referring to the survey results, the findings show that although residents use green spaces for recreation, their perception of environmental quality remains neutral to slightly positive (average score of 2.51 on a scale of 1–4). This means that the existence of green spaces has not been fully accompanied by a satisfying ecological experience. Issues of cleanliness, air pollution, and traffic congestion remain dominant issues that reduce the comfort of urban spaces. Low scores on the indicators "The air in Jakarta feels clean" (mean = 1.97) and "Mobility in Jakarta runs smoothly without significant obstacles" (mean = 1.88) confirm the gap between ecologically oriented urban design and the reality experienced by residents. This phenomenon is in line with the OECD (1999) concept of " the long road between what is said and what is done," in which communicated policies do not automatically translate into concrete actions. The most obvious example is the continued dominance of private vehicle use, despite ongoing public transportation campaigns.
On the other hand, the indicators "I often visit and use green open spaces" (mean = 2.95) and "There is sufficient vegetation" (mean = 2.87) show that residents have an emotional attachment to green open spaces. This fact can be used as a starting point for environmental communication strategies. The OECD's 3R Communication principles, namely responsible, rational, and relevant, need to be applied consistently. Responsible communication means that the government not only encourages citizens to maintain cleanliness, but also sets a real example, for example by ensuring that city parks such as Flamboyan Park or Pluit Reservoir City Park are always clean and well maintained. Rational communication requires data-based messages, such as linking littering behavior with the risk of flooding that often hits Jakarta. Meanwhile, relevant communication emphasizes messages that are appropriate to the context of residents' lives, such as waste separation campaigns accompanied by supporting facilities in public areas.
Interestingly, the high coefficient of variation in the indicators of mobility (0.614) and urban visual layout (0.608) shows that residents' perceptions of comfort, accessibility, and visual quality of the environment are not homogeneous. This analysis indicates disparities in spatial experiences between regions and social groups. This wide variation in perceptions shows that some residents feel pressure from mobility issues such as hot, unsheltered, or unorganized routes, as well as urban visual qualities that are not conducive to psychological health. To address this issue, researchers developed 'Simple Tropical Eco-design Houses' because they can reduce the micro-environmental load at the household level, provide shade, natural ventilation, and vegetative structures that improve thermal and visual comfort evenly, thereby narrowing the perception gap.
The development of Simple Tropical Eco-Design House is consistent with the sustainable development agenda launched by the United Nations, particularly Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11, which aims to create inclusive, safe, and sustainable settlements; SDG 3 related to improving physical and mental health through a more comfortable living environment; and SDG 13, where climate friendly house designs can reduce emissions and mitigate heat islands. The implementation of Simple Tropical Eco-design also relates to SDG 16, as providing more equitable and environmentally responsive access to housing helps strengthen residents' sense of justice and trust in spatial management. Meanwhile, SDG 17 can be framed as part of an environmental communication strategy as recommended by the OECD, namely the need for cross-actor partnerships, including local governments, communities, academics, and practitioners, to educate, disseminate information, and mainstream climate friendly behavior to make sure that eco-design adoption is implemented more effectively and in a coordinated manner.
Development of Simple Tropical Eco-Design Houses
Based on empirical data, the results of thermal, visual, and auditory comfort measurements exceed the threshold limits established by Indonesian National Standards (SNI). This indicates that the urban environmental quality of Jakarta has not yet been able to meet the comfort needs of its residents. High air temperature and humidity, excessive light intensity, and noise levels exceeding acceptable auditory comfort thresholds render public spaces and urban environments physically exhausting and environmentally unsustainable for users. These findings are consistent with studies by Nicol (2004) and Givoni (1998), which emphasize that mismatches between urban microclimatic conditions and human needs have direct impacts on physiological and psychological comfort. Similarly, high levels of illuminance, even within green public spaces, indicate failures in shading systems and vegetation planning to effectively control solar radiation, resulting in visual glare, eye fatigue, and increased thermal loads in outdoor spaces (Wienold and Christoffersen, 2006). Continuous exposure to environmental noise further contributes to stress, adverse health effects, and a decline in urban quality of life (Kang, 2006; Wong and Yu, 2005). Meanwhile, findings from the perception survey reveal disparities in spatial experience across different areas and social groups, indicating persistent environmental comfort issues and reflecting broader concerns related to spatial and ecological justice in urban contexts (Dempsey et al., 2011).
In response to these findings, this study developed a simple housing eco-design approach as a strategic intervention, particularly at the residential scale as the primary living environment for Jakarta’s urban population. Eco-design emphasizes the integration of passive strategies, including natural ventilation, solar radiation control through shading elements, the use of vegetation, and spatial and material configurations for noise reduction, to achieve thermal, visual, and auditory comfort simultaneously (Olgyay, 1963; Prianto and Depecker, 2003). Previous studies demonstrate that climate-responsive tropical housing design can enhance occupant comfort while reducing reliance on artificial energy systems, thereby achieving greater ecological and economic sustainability (Givoni, 1998; Nicol and Humphreys, 2002). Tropical eco-design for simple housing thus functions as an adaptive solution to urban ecological challenges, serving as a means to reduce inequalities in ecological experience and to sustainably enhance urban quality of life.
Highlighting designs that integrate ecological studies and sustainable design, researchers developed simple, environmentally friendly house designs for tropical regions. Fig. 3 shows a prototype design for a simple house with trees in the yard, the use of natural materials and variations in floor height on limited sites. The design is in harmony with the landscape and rhythm of residents' lives, and addresses the urgent issues of climate change and occupant comfort. The micro-housing design developed on a 36 m2 plot incorporates a split-level typology to optimize vertical spatial efficiency and privacy zoning, in accordance with the Indonesian National Standard (SNI) 03-1733-2004 on minimum area thresholds for urban housing. Variations in floor height technically support the stack ventilation mechanism, whereby elevation differences drive warm air upward and expel it through upper openings, thereby enhancing passive thermal comfort. Functionally, floor level differentiation also improves visual and acoustic comfort by enabling spatial separation without the use of solid partitions that may reduce perceived spatial openness. The split-level typology functions as a natural acoustic buffer, reducing noise transmission between activity zones while simultaneously expanding visual fields, resulting in interior spaces that feel more spacious and better connected to natural lighting.
Eco-design prototype for simple tropical houses.
Fig. 3 shows two trees planted in the yard of the house. This plays an important role in creating thermal comfort by controlling the air temperature and humidity around the building. Trees planted in yards can block direct sunlight, thereby reducing the heat absorbed by the ground and house walls. Areas with trees around homes experience an average air temperature reduction of 2.8°C compared to areas without vegetation (Razzaghmanesh et al., 2021). Trees planted on the west or south side of the house are also effective in reducing the intensity of the afternoon sun and ensure that the air temperature around the house can be more stable from noon to late afternoon (Locke, et al., 2024). In addition, trees in the yard can increase air humidity through transpiration, which is the release of water vapor from leaves into the atmosphere, absorbing some of the heat energy in the environment. This process increases relative humidity and lowers the surface temperature of the soil by 5–10 °C compared to areas without trees (Tian et al., 2025).
Meanwhile, housing designs featuring stepped variations in floor levels arranged to optimize vertical space (Edwards and Turrent, 2000) on limited urban land contribute to mitigating the urban heat island effect. Variations in floor height enhance natural ventilation and facilitate heat dissipation, thereby reducing the demand for mechanical cooling systems (Steemers and Yun, 2009). This effectiveness is further reinforced through the use of local materials with low production energy, which not only reduce the carbon footprint of construction but also provide thermal performance better suited to tropical urban climates, thus contributing to an overall reduction in environmental heat loads (Cabeza et al., 2014).
In terms of visual comfort and energy efficiency, trees act as natural light filters and shade providers, reducing glare without obstructing lighting. The harmonious arrangement of building heights and vegetation creates a balanced visual composition while supporting the ecological design concept, harmonizing natural and artificial elements. Trees help control the intensity of sunlight entering a space, maintain stable room temperatures, and reduce the use of artificial lighting. The application of optimized natural lighting can save up to 30% in energy consumption and enhance the visual satisfaction of occupants (Jasni et al., 2021; Dabe and Adane, 2020). Meanwhile, the use of natural materials and variations in floor height create visual depth and strengthen the relationship between the building and its natural surroundings. This concept is in line with the principles of sustainability design, which emphasizes a balance between aesthetic needs, energy efficiency, and environmental sustainability. In addition to enhancing appearance, this strategy creates living spaces that are adaptable to the tropical climate and supports visual comfort and ecological sustainability (Al-Ashwal et al., 2025).
In terms of auditory comfort, the presence of two trees in the yard can serve as an effective natural buffer against noise from the surrounding environment, especially in densely populated areas and those close to traffic. The trunk, branches, and lush foliage absorb and break up sound waves, significantly reducing the intensity of noise entering the house. The effectiveness of this attenuation depends on the type and density of the plants; a combination of trees and shrubs, for example, has been shown to reduce noise levels by 6–10 dB (Pathak et al., 2008). Interestingly, trees do not only reduce noise intensity. The presence of trees produces natural sounds such as rustling leaves or birdsong that can mask unwanted noise. Natural sounds have a restorative effect on the nervous system and can reduce stress levels and improve concentration among residents (Hong and Jeon, 2013). The presence of just two trees can create a positive psychological effect and improve the perception of acoustic comfort in the home environment.
In addition to psychological aspects, the noise reduction effect of vegetation also has a direct impact on health. Long-term exposure to high noise levels has been shown to increase the risk of sleep disorders, high blood pressure, and mental fatigue. By planting trees in their yards, residents gain a natural layer of protection against noise pollution without relying on additional technology such as soundproof walls. This is an important component in the ecological design approach that emphasizes auditory comfort and environmental sustainability (Renterghem, 2018).
A design must be able to build a perception of a more livable city (Zhang et al., 2023). Simple tropical house designs based on ecological studies can be effectively applied in densely populated urban areas because their ecological principles work well in confined spaces. This approach emphasizes the relationship between buildings, climate, and the biophysical environment, which ensures that dwellings can maintain thermal comfort, air quality, and energy efficiency even in areas with poor ventilation, high heat exposure, or minimal open space. Studies in tropical regions show that ecological strategies such as cross ventilation, passive cooling, and building mass management can significantly reduce heat loads and improve occupant comfort in densely populated settlements (Rajapaksha et al., 2003). Strategies designed based on local conditions can improve the environmental performance of buildings and strengthen the sustainability of housing, especially in cities experiencing high urbanization pressures and space constraints. Given Jakarta's dense, congested nature and high threat of air pollution, eco-design studies are highly relevant as they can provide a healthier microenvironment, reduce heat and pollution at the residential level, and offer practical solutions to improve living conditions amid the complexity of a big city.
Conclusion
The city of Jakarta faces increasingly complex ecological pressures. This condition has a direct impact on the comfort and health of residents. Residential design that integrates trees and vegetation, natural light control, the use of natural materials and variations in floor height on limited sites contribute to reduced energy consumption, improved air quality, and reduced noise pollution. When viewed from three aspects of comfort, namely thermal, visual, and auditory, ecological elements in homes make a significant contribution. Vegetation such as trees in yards can lower temperatures, increase natural humidity, improve the visual quality of outdoor spaces, and reduce noise. Similarly, varying room heights and utilizing natural light will result in a more balanced and calming space. This way, that the house is not only a place of shelter, but also a space for recovery from the pressures of climate and the hustle and bustle of Jakarta. Resident comfort is enhanced when small-scale ecological elements within the dwelling are able to mitigate various visual, thermal, and auditory disturbances that are generally difficult to avoid in dense urban environments.
Ecological studies in sustainable design form an important foundation in this research because they can provide spatial solutions that are in line with the comfort needs of Jakarta residents and are relevant to the field of visual communication design, especially in formulating ways for the community to understand, accept, and apply sustainable design principles in residential areas. This approach also aligns with the OECD's communication strategy, which emphasizes the importance of conveying environmental information in a clear, visual, and easily understandable manner in order to encourage changes in public behavior towards environmentally friendly practices.