Environmental Diplomacy in Transition: The Republic of Korea’s Green and Circular Economy Support for ASEAN (2008–2025)
Article information
Abstract
Background and objective
This article examines the evolution of the Republic of Korea’s environmental diplomacy toward ASEAN from 2008 to 2025, focusing on the development of cooperation on green and circular economies.
Methods
Using a historical-institutionalist perspective and the analytical lens of environmental diplomacy, the study investigates how successive administrations transformed green growth from a strategic policy vision into concrete programs for sustainable development in Southeast Asia. The analysis integrates historical comparison, qualitative policy assessment, and discourse analysis of major strategies, institutional frameworks, and cooperation initiatives.
Results
The findings reveal a shift from the normative and declaratory orientation of the Lee Myung-bak and Park Geun-hye governments toward more institutionalized and technology-centered cooperation under Moon Jae-in and Yoon Seok-yeol. Through initiatives such as the Green New Deal, the New Southern Policy, and emerging Korea-ASEAN green and circular economy platforms, the Republic of Korea expanded its engagement by supporting renewable energy development, waste management, and circular production systems. As a result, Korea’s environmental diplomacy has evolved into a multidimensional framework that combines technological assistance, financial support, and capacity building to facilitate ASEAN’s low-carbon transition and broader sustainability goals.
Conclusion
Situated within the broader regional and historical context of East Asia, the study demonstrates that environmental cooperation functions not only as a developmental instrument but also as a source of soft power and regional legitimacy for a middle power seeking to contribute to ecological security and sustainable development.
Introduction
In the early decades of the twenty-first century, Southeast Asia -particularly ASEAN member states such as Vietnam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines have been increasingly exposed to the severe impacts of climate change. For instance, studies indicate that climate change could reduce Cambodia’s GDP by 10% compared to 2015 levels (Ramli and Kasih, 2024, p.18). As climate change accelerates and sustainability becomes a central pillar of international relations, states increasingly use environmental cooperation as both a policy necessity and a diplomatic instrument. Across East Asia, the twin paradigms of the green economy and circular economy have gained momentum as regional governments seek to decouple growth from resource depletion and carbon dependency. This regional shift from industrial expansion to low-carbon and resource-efficient development has transformed environmental diplomacy, blurring the boundaries between domestic policy innovation and external cooperation.
Within this context, the Republic of Korea (ROK) provides a particularly compelling case. Since the launch of President Lee Myung-bak’s “Low Carbon, Green Growth” vision in 2008, Korea has positioned itself as both a policy innovator and a middle-power mediator in environmental governance. Successive administrations, Park Geun-hye (2013–2017), Moon Jae-in (2017–2022), and Yoon Seokyeol (2022–2025), have expanded this vision into concrete frameworks, including the Green ODA Initiative, the Korean New Deal, and the 2050 Carbon Neutral Strategy. Over time, environmental diplomacy has evolved from symbolic advocacy to institutionalized cooperation, combining technological assistance, financial support, and human-capacity development as part of Korea’s broader “Green Foreign Policy.”
A key question arises: Why has ASEAN become the central partner in Korea’s environmental outreach? ASEAN’s rapid economic growth, rising vulnerability to climate risks, and emerging circular-economy framework make it an ideal partner for Korea’s green diplomacy. The establishment of the ASEAN-ROK Strategic Partnership and the Framework for Circular Economy for the ASEAN Economic Community (2021) reflects not only shared interests in sustainable development but also Korea’s strategic intent to align its environmental initiatives with ASEAN’s policy architecture. As ASEAN countries transition toward low-carbon growth, Korea’s experience in renewable energy, smart cities, and waste management offers both practical and normative resources for co-development. Thus, ASEAN serves as the primary arena in which Korea can demonstrate the scalability and credibility of its environmental statecraft.
Against this background, the study addresses the central research question:
How has the Republic of Korea transformed its environmental diplomacy toward ASEAN from symbolic green rhetoric to institutionalized cooperation in the green and circular economy?
To explore this overarching question, the research further examines three sub-questions:
(1) How have successive Korean administrations redefined environmental cooperation with ASEAN?
(2) What mechanisms have translated domestic green policies into regional partnerships?
(3) How does this transition reflect Korea’s emerging role as a middle-power environmental actor?
This study advances the literature on middle-power diplomacy and environmental governance through three distinct analytical contributions: (1) It bridges the gap between Historical Institutionalism and Environmental Diplomacy, demonstrating how domestic political transitions (from Lee Myung-bak to Yoon Seok-yeol) directly reconfigure regional cooperation mechanisms; (2) Unlike existing studies that treat Korea’s green engagement as a static monolith, this research traces the evolutionary trajectory from Green Growth (technology transfer) to the Circular Economy (institutional co-creation), providing a granular analysis of how these policies are operationalized in ASEAN; (3) It reframes Korea’s environmental aid not merely as development assistance, but as a source of regional legitimacy and soft power, illustrating how a middle power creates a niche in East Asian governance by aligning with ASEAN’s internal circular economy frameworks.
Existing studies have begun to outline Korea’s green development trajectory and its partnership with ASEAN, yet they remain fragmented and rarely integrate historical evolution with institutional mechanisms. This research addresses that gap by analyzing Korea’s environmental diplomacy from 2008 to 2025 to trace how green growth principles gradually evolved into operational cooperation programs with ASEAN, including emerging circular economy initiatives. To achieve this, the study employs qualitative historical-comparative analysis and discourse analysis across four presidential administrations, enabling a systematic assessment of policy evolution, institutionalization, and regional impact.
Research Methods
Theoretical Research Approach
This research is grounded in an integrative theoretical approach that combines Historical Institutionalism (HI) with the conceptual lens of Environmental Diplomacy (ED).
From the standpoint of Historical Institutionalism, policy evolution is understood as a path-dependent process shaped by institutional legacies, leadership transitions, and external pressures. In the Korean case, each presidential administration represents a distinct institutional phase that reinterprets and reconfigures national development goals in response to changing global and regional contexts. The administrations of Lee Myung-bak (2008–2013) and Park Geun-hye (2013–2017) advanced the concept of “green growth” primarily as a strategic and normative discourse, aligning with global sustainability debates. In contrast, the Moon Jae-in (2017–2022) and Yoon Seok-yeol (2022–2025) governments reframed this discourse into operational policy frameworks, such as the Korean New Deal, the 2050 Carbon Neutral Strategy, and the New Southern Policy Plus (NSP+), which directly incorporated ASEAN into Korea’s broader environmental outreach.
Environmental diplomacy, as the second pillar of the framework, interprets ecological cooperation as a form of soft power that operates through persuasion, partnership, and shared norms rather than coercion. It posits that states use environmental initiatives, such as technology transfer, climate finance, and institutional collaboration, to shape regional policy landscapes and enhance their international legitimacy. By viewing Korea’s engagement through this lens, the study interprets environmental projects not merely as acts of aid or economic cooperation, but as expressions of a broader diplomatic strategy aimed at fostering mutual interdependence, building reputational capital, and advancing the collective pursuit of sustainable development.
Integrating the two frameworks provides a multidimensional perspective that connects domestic policy continuity with foreign policy adaptation. Together, they form a conceptual bridge linking Korea’s internal transformation from a recipient of environmental assistance to a provider of knowledge and technology to its growing regional role as an institutional co-creator of ASEAN’s green and circular economy initiatives.
Research Methodology
This research employs a qualitative, historical-comparative, and policy-analytical methodology, well-suited to exploring complex, long-term transformations in environmental diplomacy.
First, the study conducts a historical-comparative analysis of Korea’s environmental diplomacy across four administrations - Lee Myung-bak, Park Geun-hye, Moon Jae-in, and Yoon Seok-yeol. Each administration is treated as a distinct period of institutional development, with its own priorities, discourse, and mechanisms for cooperation with ASEAN. This longitudinal comparison reveals both continuity and rupture in the evolution of the notion of “green growth” into more sophisticated frameworks, such as the circular economy and carbon neutrality.
Second, a qualitative policy analysis examines how Korea’s domestic environmental strategies were externalized into ASEAN-oriented initiatives. Key policy documents, official speeches, and cooperation frameworks are analyzed to identify the mechanisms of technology exchange, green finance, and institutional partnership that underpin Korea’s environmental diplomacy. By focusing on the interaction between national policy innovation and regional cooperation frameworks, this stage elucidates how environmental policy became a form of diplomatic practice.
Third, the research applies thematic and discourse analysis to interpret how language, framing, and policy narratives have shifted over time. Through close reading of policy texts and related commentaries, the study identifies recurring motifs, such as sustainability, inclusivity, innovation, and shared prosperity, and traces their changing meanings within the broader geopolitical and ecological context of East Asia.
Results and Discussion
Evolution of Korea’s Environment Diplomacy with ASEAN (2008–2025)
From Green Growth to Green Economy Cooperation
The green economy is an economic development model that aims for sustainable growth, in which economic expansion, social welfare, and environmental protection are mutually reinforcing and implemented simultaneously (Isa et al., 2021, p. 94). This model emphasizes reducing green house gas emissions, promoting renewable energy, encouraging the conservation of natural resources, and strengthening recycling (Xuan et al., 2024, p.13). The Republic of Korea has been a pioneer in green-growth-oriented policies for more than a decade, viewing them as engines of growth and job creation based on “green technology and clean energy.” The Green New Deal initiative, launched in 2020, continues to promote the development of green infrastructure, low-carbon energy use, and innovation in green industries (Government of the Republic of Korea, 2020b, p. 13).
Cooperation between the ROK and ASEAN in the field of the green economy yields substantial benefits for both sides:
First, the green economy contributes to climate change mitigation and sustainable development. In the early decades of the twenty-first century, both Korea and ASEAN faced severe challenges posed by climate change. Their cooperation therefore aims to mitigate the impact of global warming, develop renewable energy sources such as wind and hydropower, and enhance energy efficiency and conservation. With its experience and advanced green growth technologies, Korea can support ASEAN in its transition toward a low-carbon, environmentally sustainable economy. The establishment of the ASEAN-Korea Director-Generallevel Dialogue on Environment and Climate Change in December 2020 marked an essential step toward strengthening policy and technical cooperation in such areas as air-pollution management, marine and forest conservation, circular-economy development, and climate-change response (Lee and Ro, 2021).
Second, the green economy fosters economic growth and creates opportunities for developing new sectors. It emphasizes the efficient use of natural resources, the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, and the advancement of cleaner production models. This ensures that economic growth does not harm the environment, while minimizing the risks of natural disasters and resource degradation factors that could undermine long-term financial stability. Countries that invest in green-economy initiatives often achieve steady growth by optimizing production costs and improving productivity. For instance, the shift to renewable energy sources in place of fossil fuels not only reduces pollution but also decreases dependence on finite resources, thereby mitigating economic volatility caused by global energy-price fluctuations. The green economy also opens up new industries, generating employment and investment opportunities.
Third, the green economy enables the sharing of experience and capacity building for sustainable economic development. Since implementing its “Green Growth” strategy in 2008, Korea has been well-positioned to share practical models and policy lessons with ASEAN (Oh and Gil, 2024), particularly in clean technology development and resource optimization. South Korea has successfully transitioned from a landfill-dependent system to a “resource-circulating society”. Key technologies transferred include advanced material sorting machines, landfill gas management, and incineration with energy recovery (Lee and Cha, 2020, p.8). These experiences have been effectively transferred through key bilateral and multilateral initiatives, such as the Korea-ASEAN Environmental Cooperation and Sustainable Development Initiative. Through such programs, ASEAN gains access to advanced green development models, improved environmental management capacity, and enhanced expertise in renewable energy and digital transformation for sustainable production. This cooperation strengthens human resource development while linking Korea’s technological capacity with ASEAN’s sustainability needs, laying the foundation for joint growth and accelerating the region’s energy transition (Hong, 2021).
During the early decades of the twenty-first century, successive administrations of the Republic of Korea have shown a clear evolution in their policies toward ASEAN in the green economy, from broad strategic rhetoric to more tangible, action-oriented cooperation. From a Historical Institutionalist perspective, the Lee Myung-bak era represents a critical juncture where the “Low Carbon, Green Growth” vision established a new policy path. However, the empirical evidence suggests that while the domestic institutional framework was revolutionary, its externalization via environmental diplomacy remained “symbolic statecraft”. By analyzing the gap between domestic legislation and regional implementation, we observe that the early stages of Korea’s green diplomacy were constrained by institutional inertia, where diplomatic mechanisms had not yet caught up to domestic normative ambitions. This underscores the Historical Institutionalism premise that institutional change in foreign policy often lags behind domestic innovation due to existing diplomatic protocols. During President Park Geun-hye’s administration (2013– 2017), Korea maintained the same policy orientation. Still, it offered only limited technical support to ASEAN, focusing mainly on technology transfer and knowledge sharing without substantial financial or institutional engagement. A notable shift occurred under President Moon Jae-in (2017–2022), when the New Southern Policy (NSP) and its expanded version, NSP Plus, transformed green cooperation into a key pillar of Korea’s diplomacy toward ASEAN ( Table 1) For the first time, Seoul actively implemented sustainable development initiatives in renewable energy, waste management, and green human capital training. This period marked a transition from declaratory diplomacy to operational environmental partnerships, anchoring Korea’s green diplomacy with ASEAN through concrete projects and institutional collaboration.
Environmental policy orientations across the ROK administration (2008–2025)
During the presidency of Moon Jae-in, the New Southern Policy (NSP) was launched to diversify the Republic of Korea’s diplomatic and economic relations with ASEAN and India amid intensifying geopolitical competition between the United States and China (Lee and Ro, 2021, p.110). The NSP emphasized three pillars - People, Prosperity, and Peace, with a central focus on sustainable economic cooperation, including green-economy initiatives. In 2020, the policy was upgraded to NSP Plus, which introduced seven key initiatives, including a strategic orientation toward cooperation in future industries, reflecting Korea’s commitment to a green-economy partnership with ASEAN (Kim, 2023).
Under the frameworks of NSP and NSP Plus, Korea implemented and proposed a wide range of green-economy cooperation projects with ASEAN countries, focusing on two major areas:
First, cooperation in future industries and green technologies. NSP Plus identifies collaboration in future industries for shared prosperity as a top priority. This involves promoting joint efforts in the digital economy, renewable energy, and other green technologies. Leveraging its status as a global leader in the digital economy, Korea has established digital-cooperation platforms with ASEAN in information and communications technology (ICT), technology transfer, and joint RandD for future-oriented industries. Both sides agreed to establish joint centers for science and technology cooperation, standardization, and innovation, including the ASEAN-Korea Financial Cooperation Center (Lee and Ro, 2021, p.369).
Second, cooperation on the environment and climate change. Recognizing the urgency of global environmental challenges, both NSP and NSP Plus emphasize collaboration in environmental protection and climate change response (Peng Er, 2023, p.221). In 2020, Korea announced the Korean Green New Deal, which promotes the green transformation of infrastructure, the development of decentralized low-carbon energy systems, and innovation in green industries (Government of the Republic of Korea, 2020b, p.13). These strategies align closely with the green development plans of several ASEAN countries, providing a foundation for bilateral and multilateral cooperation. Joint efforts in water-resource management, biodiversity conservation, and addressing non-traditional security issues related to the environment have also been prioritized (Lee and Ro, 2021, p.264).
In the early decades of the twenty-first century, Southeast Asia, particularly ASEAN member states such as Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines, has been increasingly exposed to the severe impacts of climate change (Choi et al., 2021). The rising frequency and intensity of extreme weather events have inflicted profound economic, social, and ecological damage. Among the most vulnerable areas are Vietnam’s Mekong Delta and the Philippines, both highly susceptible to sea-level rise and environmental degradation. Within this context, transitioning from a linear to a green economic model has become an urgent imperative for the region (Arthur et al., 2022, p.28).
From the second decade of the century onward, the Republic of Korea intensified its cooperation on the green economy with ASEAN through renewable energy initiatives. The convergence between ASEAN countries’ growing demand for energy efficiency, particularly in Malaysia, Indonesia, Myanmar, and Thailand, and Korea’s Green New Deal initiatives has opened promising avenues for renewable energy collaboration and sustainable growth across the region (Choi et al., 2021, p.27).
In implementing environmental diplomacy toward ASEAN, the Republic of Korea has shifted its focus from a green growth model to green economy cooperation, as reflected in the expansion of policy frameworks, the upgrading of cooperative programs, and the increased provision of technical and financial assistance to ASEAN member states.
In terms of policy and strategic cooperation, ASEAN and Korea have jointly formulated several action plans to promote renewable energy as a pillar of regional sustainable development. The “ASEAN-ROK Plan of Action to Implement the Joint Declaration on the Strategic Partnership for Peace and Prosperity (2016–2020)” identifies several key priorities, including the development of renewable and hydropower energy, improvement of energy efficiency, enhancement of research and development (RandD) capacity, expansion of off-grid rural electrification systems, and advancement of modern power grid networks (ASEAN, 2012, p.8). This approach illustrates the increasingly close linkage between Korea’s green energy policies and ASEAN’s sustainable development strategy, thereby shaping an essential component of Korea’s environmental diplomacy.
In the field of technology transfer and capacity building, the Republic of Korea has strengthened its cooperation with ASEAN through technology transfer, professional exchanges, and RandD support to advance the energy transition process in the Mekong subregion. A notable example is the series of projects funded by the Mekong-Korea Cooperation Fund (MKCF), such as the Capacity-Building Program for Wind Energy Use for Sustainable Rural Development in Myanmar and assistance for the construction of hydropower plants in Laos (ASEAN, 2012, p.8). These activities not only contribute to the transfer of green technology and knowledge but also reaffirm Korea’s position as an active partner in promoting clean energy development across the region.
Regarding rural electrification, Korea has utilized its Official Development Assistance to support the Mekong subregion countries, particularly Laos and Myanmar, in expanding energy infrastructure and improving access to electricity. Within its Country Partnership Strategy with Laos, Korea financed projects to upgrade power transmission systems and develop electric grids, thereby helping the country move closer to its goal of nationwide electrification. In Myanmar, Korea has assisted in expanding energy infrastructure in remote areas and developing independent power supply systems. The “Mekong-Han River Declaration,” adopted at the 1st Mekong-ROK Summit in 2019, once again reaffirmed Korea’s role in advancing rural electrification through initiatives such as the Independent Energy Town Project (Hong, 2021, p. 15). In parallel, ASEAN and Korea have also cooperated on rural electrification programs using solar, biomass, biogas, mini-hydro, and off-grid energy sources (ASEAN, 2020, p. 6).
Specifically, Korea has implemented a range of initiatives to support renewable energy development, CO2 emission reduction, and biodiversity conservation in Cambodia (Kang, 2022, p.47). Through the MKCF, additional wind energy projects for sustainable rural development have been implemented in Myanmar, while in Laos, the fund financed the establishment of an advanced hydrometeorological system for water resource management in the Mekong River Basin (Peng Er, 2023). Furthermore, Korea and ASEAN have expanded cooperation in green technology and digital transformation, thereby laying the groundwork for a comprehensive green economy model and promoting sustainable energy transition throughout the region (Kamaruddin and Deivasagayam, 2023).
After taking office in 2022, President Yoon Seok-yeol concretized cooperation with ASEAN in the field of green economy through three key measures: (1) the Korea-ASEAN Green Growth Initiative; (2) the K-SDGs (Korea Sustainable Development Goals) Initiative within the framework of the Indo-Pacific Strategy; and (3) the Korea-ASEAN Policy for Green Growth. These measures all aim toward sustainable development, yet they differ in characteristics, scope, and practical effectiveness. The Korea-ASEAN Green Growth Initiative, inherited and vigorously promoted by President Yoon Seok-yeol in 2022, is characterized by a clear focus and high degree of specificity, targeting renewable energy, resource conservation, and climate change adaptation.
With a clear strategic orientation, the initiative has generated several practical projects, such as cooperation in wind power development in Vietnam and the transfer of waste treatment technology in Indonesia, demonstrating short-term effectiveness from the outset. In contrast, the K-SDGs (Korea Sustainable Development Goals) Initiative under the Indo-Pacific Strategy is characterized by a long-term vision and a broad scope, encompassing not only environmental issues but also education, healthcare, economy, and energy. However, this diversity has also limited the initiative’s depth in each specific area, making it difficult to achieve rapid results—particularly given the challenge of coordinating interests among countries with different levels of development.
The Korea-ASEAN Policy for Green Growth can be viewed as a balanced synthesis of the two aforementioned initiatives, as it not only pursues green growth but also emphasizes support mechanisms for ASEAN through investment, technology transfer, and institutional capacity building. The policy’s effectiveness is reflected in its high adaptability to the diverse green development needs of individual ASEAN member states.
In contrast to the largely symbolic declarations of his predecessors, President Yoon Seok-yeol has demonstrated a far more tangible, operational level of support through a series of initiatives centered on technology transfer, financial assistance, and the establishment of specific cooperative mechanisms. In particular, joint programs on offshore wind energy, green hydrogen development, and renewable infrastructure construction in Vietnam, Indonesia, and the Philippines exemplify the high practical effectiveness of Korea’s current green economy policy.
As ASEAN continues to assume an increasingly strategic role within the regional architecture, Korea’s green economy development policy under President Yoon has strong potential to make constructive contributions. However, its long-term effectiveness remains to be evaluated, particularly with respect to implementation capacity and cooperation outcomes.
While President Moon Jae-in’s New Southern Policy (NSP) primarily focused on broadening partnerships and laying a policy foundation for green cooperation through dialogue and official development assistance, President Yoon Seok-yeol has decisively shifted toward concrete initiatives, institutionalized cooperation frameworks, and large-scale project implementation. The contrast in the depth and effectiveness of support between the two administrations underscores the increasingly substantive evolution of the Korea-ASEAN partnership in the green economy sector during the early decades of the twenty-first century, from policy formulation to practical realization.
Transition toward a Circular Economy Partnership
The circular economy is an economic model in which materials and energy are continuously reused and circulated, to extend product lifecycles, minimize the extraction of new resources, and reduce waste and energy losses to the lowest possible level (Herrador et al., 2022, p.1). This model stands in contrast to the traditional linear economy characterized by the “take-make-dispose” approach (Ness, 2008). According to the European Commission (2015, p.2), the circular economy maximizes the value of products, materials, and resources while minimizing waste.
In the Republic of Korea, the concept of the circular economy was initially regarded as being synonymous with resource circulation. Related policies, including the Framework Act on Resource Circulation (2016), affirm the nation’s commitment to becoming a resource-efficient society by minimizing waste generation (Republic of Korea, 2016).
For its part, ASEAN has established the Circular Economy Framework for the ASEAN Economic Community (2021) as a guiding principle for member states in their transition toward a circular economy, with the aim of achieving sustainable economic development in line with the AEC Blueprint 2025 (ASEAN, 2021, p.4).
In the ongoing transformation of environmental diplomacy toward ASEAN, cooperation in the circular economy has emerged as a crucial component, embodying the reorientation of Korea’s green policy from the Lee Myungbak administration to that of Yoon Seok-yeol. Rather than remaining at the level of conceptual or declarative politics, Korea has translated its domestic experience in resource circulation into institutionalized mechanisms and regionally operational frameworks, thereby reinforcing its position as a middle-power environmental actor within the evolving structure of East Asia.
First, the circular economy plays a vital role in addressing challenges related to waste management and environmental pollution. With rapid urbanization and economic growth, ASEAN faces increasing pressure to manage waste and mitigate pollution (Herrador and Van, 2024, p.1). The circular economy offers practical solutions through waste reduction, recycling, and resource reuse, thereby alleviating environmental burdens and promoting sustainability. Drawing on its extensive experience in building a resource-circulating society embodied in the Renewable Energy and Energy Management Act (2001), the Act on the Development and Use of Recycled Resources (2018), and the Green Circular Economy Policy (2020), the Republic of Korea has effectively supported ASEAN in developing efficient waste management systems and advancing circular business models (Mohan et al., 2024). This experience has been instrumental for ASEAN member states (AMS), such as Vietnam. Vietnam’s 2020 Law on Environmental Protection and its subsequent Decree No. 08/2022/ND-CP officially institutionalized the circular economy and EPR, mandating producers and importers to recycle products and packaging, a structure that closely mirrors the Korean regulatory trajectory (Ramli and Kasih, 2024, p.44).
Second, Korea’s support for ASEAN’s circular economy helps strengthen resource security. The circular economy reduces dependence on primary resources, many of which are scarce or subject to price volatility. Recycling and recovering materials from waste streams, especially critical resources such as metals and rare earth elements, is an effective means of enhancing resource security for both Korea and ASEAN (Lee and Cha, 2020). Collaborative efforts to build regional circular value chains can also ensure a stable and sustainable supply of raw materials.
Third, the circular economy stimulates technological innovation and the growth of new industries. It requires the development and application of advanced technologies in eco-design, product life extension, high-efficiency recycling, and Product-as-a-Service models (Herrador et al., 2022, p.11). Collaborative research and development between Korea and ASEAN in circular technologies has generated technological breakthroughs and fostered emerging green industries that deliver both economic and environmental benefits.
Fourth, the circular economy supports the harmonization of regional policies and standards. To advance circular practices in ASEAN and East Asia, it is essential to align policies and standards related to product design for recyclability, industrial criteria for recycled goods, and controls on the cross-border impacts of waste trade (Arthur et al., 2022). As a regional leader, Korea can play a pivotal role in shaping international circular-economy standards and collaborating with ASEAN to establish regional frameworks that facilitate trade and investment in this sector (Moon et al., 2022, p.30).
Since the early decades of the twenty-first century, Korea’s support for ASEAN’s circular economy development has become a key priority in its foreign policy and sustainable development agenda. This policy has been pursued not only through bilateral cooperation but also through multilateral mechanisms, including ASEAN+3 and the ASEAN-Korea Summit. These commitments reflect Korea’s evolving awareness of the need to develop sustainable solutions to address environmental challenges and to strength en regional cooperation to achieve green growth and mitigate the impacts of climate change.
When the Republic of Korea and ASEAN successfully elevated their ties to a strategic partnership under President Lee Myung-bak in 2010, Korea primarily focused on establishing foundational frameworks for cooperation with ASEAN in renewable energy and waste management. President Lee Myung-bak was the first Korean leader to initiate circular-economy policies, under which Korea committed to supporting ASEAN countries in developing waste-reduction and recycling solutions. Although his policies played an important role in shaping early commitments, most initiatives during this period remained conceptual and strategic, with limited tangible impact on specific ASEAN projects (Lim, 2024, tr.89).
During President Park Geun-hye’s administration (2013–2017), Korea continued to advance cooperation on the circular economy, with ASEAN partnerships as a particular focus. Under her leadership, Korea expanded its support for waste management, renewable energy, and recycling initiatives in ASEAN countries. However, the policy focused primarily on capacity building and technology transfer, without achieving large-scale, transformative projects in the region’s circular economy.
Under the Moon Jae-in administration (2017–2022), the New Southern Policy Plus (NSP+) framework was leveraged to significantly enhance cooperation in the circular economy. This period marked Korea’s active engagement in recycling technology, waste treatment, and green infrastructure development projects across ASEAN member states (Hoo, 2020, p.71). Korea launched a series of cooperative programs, including the construction of recycling plants in Vietnam, the promotion of clean energy initiatives in Indonesia, and plastic waste management projects in the Philippines. These initiatives not only underscored Korea’s sustained commitment to ASEAN but also demonstrated a strategic transformation in its approach to sustainable development cooperation.
While the Lee and Park administrations approached cooperation primarily through a state-centric “Green Growth” framework, the Moon administration expanded this focus toward a human-centered circular economy.
Historically, under Lee Myung-bak, Korea’s environmental cooperation with ASEAN was closely tied to industrial and energy interests, reflected in the export of wastewater treatment, solar energy, and clean coal technologies (KOICA, 2012). The Park Geun-hye administration maintained this orientation but incorporated “Green ODA” elements into the “Northeast Asia Peace and Cooperation Initiative”, emphasizing clean technology transfer and disaster management rather than creating material circulation in production and consumption (KIEP, 2016).
Following the historic upgrade of bilateral ties to a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership at the 25th ASEANROK Summit in October 2024, cooperation has been systematically reoriented toward high-impact environmental deliverables. The 2024 Joint Statement explicitly prioritizes the Partnership for ASEAN-ROK Methane Action and enhanced cooperation through the ASEAN Centre for Climate Change, marking a definitive shift from general green growth advocacy to targeted climate mitigation mechanisms (ASEAN, 2024).
Marking a significant shift in Korea’s environmental diplomacy with ASEAN, the Moon Jae-in administration, through the New Southern Policy Plus (NSP+), reoriented its approach from exporting green technologies to building endogenous capacity within ASEAN economies. Consequently, Korea not only provided recycling equipment but also supported institutional frameworks, legal mechanisms, and community-based models for waste sorting, material recycling, and renewable energy use. The defining feature of the Moon Jae-in era (2017–2022) lies in its comprehensive and community-driven approach: Korea’s ASEAN projects during this period were not limited to promoting green growth, but also aimed at environmental education, social awareness, and local employment generation as exemplified by the “Korea-Vietnam Circular Economy Partnership” in Binh Duong and the “Smart Recycling City” model in collaboration with Indonesia.
Thus, while Lee Myung-bak represents the phase of “green industrialization” and Park Geun-hye embodies “green diplomacy,” the era of Moon Jae-in marks a transition toward “circular human ecology” - a shift from outward-oriented technological development to co-creative cooperation with ASEAN. This transformation signifies the maturation of Korea’s foreign policy mindset, evolving from the unidirectional provision of technological solutions to the promotion of a participatory, circular development model grounded in mutual engagement and shared responsibility. Such an approach aligns closely with the principles of sustainable development and mutually beneficial environmental diplomacy that define the twenty-first century.
Since President Yoon Seok-yeol took office, the Republic of Korea has elevated its circular economy initiatives, aiming for carbon neutrality by 2050 and promoting a green circular economy across ASEAN (Government of the Republic of Korea, 2020a). Following the establishment of the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership between Korea and ASEAN in 2023, cooperation projects have been systematically reoriented toward high-tech transfer solutions, including bioplastic production and recycling, renewable energy development, and electronic waste management technologies. This program not only emphasizes infrastructure development but also encourages the active participation of the private sector, startups, and local communities to ensure the long-term sustainability of these initiatives.
A defining feature of President Yoon Seok-yeol’s policy lies in the integration of circular-economy objectives with the “Global Pivotal State” strategy, through which Korea seeks to shape international norms for green development in collaboration with ASEAN. Compared with the Moon Jae-in administration, Yoon’s approach marks a shift from community-based cooperation to technology-driven, globally integrated partnerships. Whereas Moon Jae-in emphasized bottom-up co-creation at the local level, Yoon Seokyeol focuses on top-down institutional frameworks to advance cooperation through regional agreements and green financing mechanisms, such as the ASEAN-Korea Carbon Neutrality Cooperation Fund and the Green Transition Partnership.
This approach demonstrates that Korea is no longer merely a provider of development assistance but rather a coordinating hub for green technology and finance, helping ASEAN bridge technological gaps while simultaneously enhancing Korea’s position in the global innovation and circular-economy value chain.
A comparative assessment of the contributions of successive Korean presidents to circular economy cooperation with ASEAN reveals a gradual evolution from the strategic and policy-oriented foundations laid by Lee Myung-bak and Park Geun-hye to the concrete, action-oriented initiatives advanced by Moon Jae-in and Yoon Seok-yeol. Since the early decades of the twenty-first century, particularly during the administrations of Moon and Yoon, projects have moved beyond technology transfer to include sustainable infrastructure development, green job creation, and community awareness-raising on the importance of circular economy practices, thereby making a significant contribution to ASEAN’s sustainable development.
Environmental cooperation between the Republic of Korea and ASEAN clearly illustrates the evolutionary trajectory of Seoul’s environmental diplomacy across successive presidencies from the “Green Growth” vision under Lee Myung-bak, to the policy implementation phase during Park Geun-hye and Moon Jae-in, and finally to the Yoon Seok-yeol era, in which the concept of the circular economy has become a central pillar. Since the establishment of the political consultation mechanism in 1991, the two sides have moved from a traditional development-oriented relationship to a comprehensive strategic partnership grounded in shared environmental and sustainable development goals (Fig. 1).
Evolution of ROK-ASEAN environmental cooperation.
Source. Author’s compilation based on ROK environmental policy frameworks (2008–2025) and the ASEAN Circular Economy Framework (2021).
During the early phase (2000–2016), cooperative initiatives primarily focused on addressing ecological degradation through basic research and training projects, such as the ASEAN Biodiversity Conservation Support Program (2005) and the Mekong Green Community Initiative (2014), both reflecting a one-way model of technical assistance between Korea and ASEAN. In contrast, the subsequent phase (2017–2025) has witnessed a transition toward the co-creation of policies and institutions, exemplified by the ASEAN-Korea Carbon Dialogue, which is aligned with the ASEAN Working Group on Climate Change (AWGCC) Action Plan (ASEAN, 2021b.5).
This shift signifies the “intra-regionalization” of Korean environmental diplomacy, a progression from applying domestic development models to the reciprocal exchange of environmental governance norms, reflecting a more interactive and regionally embedded approach to cooperation with ASEAN.
While President Lee Myung-bak focused on promoting the image of a “Green Nation” under the slogan “Low Carbon, Green Growth”, the administrations of Moon Jae-in and Yoon Seok-yeol emphasized the linkage between domestic environmental policy and regional commitments. The enactment of the Framework Act on Resource Circulation (FARC) in 2016 and the implementation of the Korean New Green Deal (Republic of Korea, 2016) marked a turning point, positioning Korea as a pioneer in transforming domestic environmental policy into an international cooperation framework.
Through the New Southern Policy (NSP) and the ASEAN Economic Community Circular Economy Framework (2021), Seoul effectively aligned its national objectives with ASEAN’s sustainable development priorities. A concrete example is the Indonesia Marine Debris Management Improvement Project (2019), jointly implemented by Korea’s Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries and Indonesia’s Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, which demonstrates knowledge and technology transfer within a bilateral cooperation framework (Lee and Ro, 2021).
Compared to the 2000–2016 period, when Korea primarily served as a financial sponsor or technical advisor for projects, those initiated during Moon Jae-in’s presidency through 2025 have embodied a shared-responsibility approach, reflecting a new cooperative model in which ASEAN has evolved from a passive recipient to an active co-designer of policy frameworks.
The difference between these phases is also reflected in the level of institutionalization of cooperation. While the “Green Growth” period focused primarily on government-to-government (G2G) strategies, the “Circular Economy” phase expanded to multi-stakeholder collaboration through the Quadruple Helix model, which integrates governments, businesses, academia, and international organizations. The ASEAN-Korea Cooperation Fund plays a catalytic role, helping optimize resources and encourage private-sector participation in carbon-reduction and green job-creation projects.
In particular, the public-private partnership between CJ CheilJedang and KOICA represents a distinct approach to prior practices: rather than focusing solely on financial assistance, Korea promotes green innovation, the development of biorecycling technologies, and the integration of economic goals with environmental responsibility. This marks a progressive shift from “aid diplomacy” to “co-creative value diplomacy,” in which social, technological, and market factors are jointly integrated to advance sustainable development (Min and Cho, 2024, p.1621).
In addition, the interaction between Korea and ASEAN member states reveals both convergence and divergence in their respective green development models. Singapore pursues a “zero landfill” objective, the Philippines has enacted the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act, and Thailand implements the 3R Policy - Reduce, Reuse, Recycle (Anbumozhi and Kojima, 2020, p.320). Drawing on its experience addressing urban environmental crises in the 1980s-1990s, Korea has the technical expertise and capacity to provide context-specific support and technology transfer suited to the varying stages of ASEAN countries’ development.
Differences in institutional frameworks and national capacities, for instance, Vietnam’s formal adoption of the circular economy concept only in 2020, Indonesia’s integration of it into the Vision 2045, and Thailand’s implementation of the Bio-Circular-Green (BCG) Economy Model in 2021, have enabled Korea to demonstrate its flexible coordination capacity as a middle power in regional environmental cooperation (ASEAN, 2021; Ramli and Kasih, 2024, p.30).
From a comparative perspective, Korea’s role has undergone a profound transformation from a technology learner within the OECD framework to a regional intermediary of environmental standards and innovation. In the 1990s, Korea sought international recognition primarily through development cooperation, whereas today it positions itself as a “norm entrepreneur” in Asian environmental governance. Unlike Japan, which emphasizes clean technology exports through ODA, or China, which pursues strategic climate diplomacy, Korea has adopted a model of “circular diplomacy” - an approach that prioritizes institutional transformation and multilateral collaboration as key instruments for soft power building and regional influence.
Challenges and Limitations in Korea-ASEAN Environmental Cooperation
Despite the Republic of Korea’s establishment of robust policy frameworks, notably the Green New Deal and the Korea-ASEAN Solidarity Initiative (KASI), aimed at spearheading green growth and the transition to a circular economy, substantial discrepancies persist between diplomatic discourse and on-the-ground implementation. The efficacy of South Korea’s environmental diplomacy is currently constrained by a complex interplay of structural asymmetries within ASEAN, a deep-seated path dependence on fossil fuels in both regions, and a fragmented regulatory landscape.
Structural and Institutional Asymmetries within ASEAN
The “Two-Tier ASEAN” Phenomenon and Absorptive Capacity A primary impediment to standardized regional cooperation is the profound structural heterogeneity among ASEAN Member States (AMS). Significant disparities in economic development have engendered an “absorptive capacity dilemma”, effectively bifurcating the region into two distinct tiers. High- and upper-middle-income economies, such as Singapore and Malaysia, function as “potential innovators”, possessing the requisite infrastructure to integrate Industry 4.0 technologies and advanced circular economy systems (Anbumozhi and Kojima, 2020). Conversely, the CLMV group (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam) continues to grapple with substantial development gaps, necessitating support for basic infrastructure rather than advanced technological interventions (Hong, 2024, p.93).
This bifurcation complicates South Korea’s strategic approach. High-tech solutions—such as smart grids or advanced waste-to-energy plants align well with the readiness of efficiency-seeking nations like Indonesia or Thailand, but are ill-suited for “latecomers” like Myanmar or Laos, which lack technological maturity. Consequently, disparities in digital infrastructure and labor skills have created a “structural bottleneck,” hindering the equitable distribution of green projects in South Korea. This creates a risk that aid will concentrate on more developed AMS, thereby ex acerbating regional inequality by leaving the least developed areas behind (Anbumozhi and Kojima, 2020).
The Political Economy of “Brown” Versus “Green” Rransitions
A mutual path dependence on carbon-intensive industries challenges the credibility of Seoul’s environmental diplomacy. As a resource-poor nation, South Korea relies heavily on imported raw materials and fossil fuels to sustain key industries such as steel and semiconductors. Despite “Green Growth” rhetoric, South Korea’s industrial structure remains energy-intensive, and the nation has historically struggled to decouple from the “brown economy” model due to entrenched interest groups (Mathews, 2012).
Simultaneously, ASEAN economies prioritize rapid industrialization, a trajectory often correlated with rising CO2 emissions and resource consumption. The regional energy sector is characterized by market distortions and fossil fuel subsidies, which retard the transition to sustainable energy mixes. In major economies like Indonesia and Vietnam, reliance on coal and the political complexities of phasing out thermal power generate resistance to South Korean renewable energy projects (Min and Cho, 2024). This mutual reliance on fossil fuel trajectories creates a “hypocrisy trap,” wherein bilateral cooperation is theoretically green but practically constrained by economic imperatives regarding energy security and industrial expansion (Mathews, 2012).
South Korea’s circular economy initiatives, particularly those involving automated recycling and waste management technologies, risk inducing socio-economic friction with ASEAN’s informal sector. In emerging Asian economies, the informal sector is integral to waste management, handling approximately 95% of e-waste recycling in Vietnam and processing 700,000 tons of plastic annually in Indonesia (Arthur et al., 2022, p.101). These informal laborers often operate without social safety nets and face significant health hazards. Introducing automated systems without addressing these socio-economic realities threatens to displace vulnerable populations, undermining the principles of a “Just Transition.”
Technical and Financial Implementation Gaps
A pronounced misalignment exists between the high-tech orientation of South Korean ODA and the “appropriate technology” needs of specific ASEAN communities. South Korea’s strategy leverages Industry 4.0 technologies: IoT, Big Data, and AI as drivers for the circular economy. While Singapore and Malaysia are positioned to adopt these solutions, less developed AMS struggle with fundamental waste management infrastructure, where low-cost, nature-based solutions may be more urgent (Anbumozhi and Kojima, 2020). Furthermore, the sustainability of technology transfer is often compromised by a lack of long-term capacity building. Projects frequently falter upon the conclusion of donor funding cycles because local skill bases in nations like Cambodia are insufficient to maintain advanced CE infrastructure (Ramli and Kasih, 2024, p.90).
South Korean Small and Medium-sized Enterprises in the green sector face elevated risks when entering the ASEAN market. The “medium risk, medium return” profile of green projects creates a “financing air pocket,” making capital mobilization significantly more difficult for SMEs compared to large conglomerates. Additionally, the scarcity of financial guarantees and insurance for private green investment impedes the scaling of South Korean private-sector participation. Without innovative de-risking mechanisms, South Korean green technology firms will remain hesitant to invest in environmental public goods where returns are ambiguous or dependent on inconsistent local regulatory enforcement (Moon et al., 2022, p.10).
Geopolitical and Strategic Constraints
In the context of environmental diplomacy in Southeast Asia, South Korea faces intense competition from established incumbents. Japan, through JICA and long-standing environmental networks, has cultivated deep regulatory affinity and institutional linkages with AMS, particularly in waste management and technical standards. Simultaneously, the EU exerts influence through normative power, using mechanisms such as the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism and strict circular-economy standards to compel ASEAN nations to adjust their export policies (Arthur et al., 2022, pp. 18–19). China is aggressively promoting the Belt and Road Initiative with massive financial commitments for infrastructure, including energy and waste treatment. Despite criticism regarding debt traps and environmental impacts, the sheer scale of Chinese capital remains highly attractive to infrastructure-hungry nations like Laos and Cambodia (Ramadhan, 2019). South Korea, possessing more modest financial resources, struggles to compete directly on the scale of aid.
The robust presence of these partners poses a significant challenge for South Korea in establishing a distinct identity for its “Green Growth” or “New Southern Policy” initiatives. Although Seoul attempts to present its model as an industrial development strategy rather than solely as environmental protection, the strategic overlap makes its initiatives susceptible to being overshadowed or perceived as derivative of Japanese and Western models. Furthermore, ASEAN’s “hedging” strategy, wherein member states accept aid from multiple sources to maximize benefits without committing to a single set of technical standards, dilutes the strategic impact of Seoul’s environmental diplomacy.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this study offers significant analytical insights into the changing nature of Asian environmental governance. The findings validate the utility of Historical Institutionalism in explaining foreign policy shifts. The study confirms that Korea’s environmental diplomacy is path-dependent yet adaptive, evolving through distinct administrative phases rather than random policy fluctuations. The research identifies a critical pivot in the donor-recipient relationship. Korea has successfully transitioned from a provider of hard infrastructure (Phase 1) to a co-architect of regional institutions (Phase 3). This suggests that for middle powers, the most effective form of environmental diplomacy lies in “circular human ecology” - integrating technological aid with local institutional capacity building. Ultimately, by mapping this transition, the study underscores that Korea’s ambition to become a “Global Pivotal State” is predicated on its ability to move beyond symbolic rhetoric and embed itself into the operational fabric of ASEAN’s green transition.
The transition from the Green Growth phase to Circular Human Ecology under Moon Jae-in demonstrates more than a change in project types; it illustrates the institutional learning of a middle power. By shifting from exporting hardware to co-creating regional norms, Korea leveraged Environmental Diplomacy as a tool for ecological security. This empirical shift confirms our theoretical framework: Korea’s role evolved from a technology provider to a norm entrepreneur, utilizing the circular economy to build soft power and secure regional leadership in a crowded geopolitical landscape.
Korea’s green and circular-economy cooperation with ASEAN in the early decades of the twenty-first century reflects a steady deepening of interregional environmental engagement, shaped by the alignment between ASEAN’s development priorities and Korea’s technological and policy experience. What has emerged is not simply a pattern of technology transfer or ODA expansion but a broader transformation in Korea’s environmental diplomacy, evolving from a green-growth orientation to a more collaborative circular-economy approach.
Across administrations, cooperation has centered on renewable energy and energy efficiency, as evidenced by projects such as wind development in Myanmar and solar, biomass, and biogas electrification in the Mekong region. Complementary RandD efforts and power-transmission upgrades have reduced reliance on fossil fuels and supported ASEAN’s emission-reduction goals (Lee and Ro, 2021, p.216). Waste management and circular-economy development have likewise become durable pillars of cooperation, underpinned by domestic policies such as the Framework Act on Resource Circulation (2016) and the Korean New Green Deal ( 2020), which commit Korea to a resource-regenerative economic model aimed at closing the material loop (Republic of Korea, 2016).
Regionally, institutions such as K-ECO have facilitated the diffusion of waste-treatment technologies and assisted ASEAN in building its Circular Economy Framework, contributing to the gradual institutionalization of interregional cooperation (Ramli and Kasih, 2024, p.30). Within this architecture, Korea has assumed three complementary roles: technology transfer, expanding financial support, including through mechanisms such as the ASEAN Catalytic Green Finance Facility, and strengthening institutional platforms, such as the ASEAN-Korea Centre and the ASEAN-Korea Summit.
Since 2020, cooperation has expanded to include hydrogen energy, next-generation renewables, and electronic-waste management, reflecting Korea’s shift toward carbon-neutral diplomacy. Hydropower, wind energy, and RandD initiatives in the Mekong region have laid foundations for hydrogen cooperation (Hong, 2021, p.15), while the Comprehensive Environmental Protection Agreement with Vietnam (2018) signals a widening agenda encompassing waste management, marine pollution, and plastic-waste reduction (Lee and Ro, 2021, p.219).
Taken together, Korea’s environmental diplomacy has progressed through three transitional phases: technology-oriented green growth under Lee Myung-bak and Park Geun-hye, human-centered environmental cooperation under Moon Jae-in, and high-tech, carbon-neutral diplomacy under Yoon Seok-yeol. This trajectory reflects increasing specialization, institutionalization, and functional expansion, with ASEAN evolving from a development partner into a co-creative policy space where green and circular-economy models are tested and scaled. The findings reaffirm Korea’s growing influence in shaping ASEAN’s transition to a circular economy and contribute to broader debates on environmental diplomacy within the context of sustainable globalization.