Introduction
The term "Óc Eo culture," originally proposed by Louis Malleret in 1944, refers to a group of archaeological sites associated with the ancient coastal kingdom of Funan, which flourished in the Mekong Delta between the 1st and 7th centuries CE (Vallerin & Manguin, 1997). At its height, Funan emerged as a dynamic center of regional power and cultural synthesis in mainland Southeast Asia, characterized by a mandala-style polity that integrated multiple ethnic groups and semi-autonomous territories (Luong, 2005). The Óc Eo archaeological record offers essential material evidence for understanding the formation of this early state, recognized as one of the earliest and most complex Indianized civilizations in the region (Pelliot, 1903; Malleret, 1959–1963).
The temporal span of the Óc Eo civilization, from the 2nd century BCE to the 12th century CE, coincides with significant transformations in settlement morphology and water management across the Mekong Delta. Its core region, centered in present-day An Giang Province, reveals a distinct pattern of urban spatial organization interwoven with a sophisticated hydraulic system. Archaeological investigations have documented a dense network of settlements and canal alignments extending across An Giang and neighboring provinces, reflecting a high degree of socio-ecological coordination adapted to seasonal flood regimes.
At the heart of this network lies the Óc Eo–Ba Thê archaeological complex. Following administrative restructuring on July 1, 2025, the former An Giang and Kiên Giang provinces were consolidated into the new An Giang Province (Fig. 1). The Óc Eo–Ba Thê site comprises a protected area of 433.2 hectares, divided into Zone A (143.9 ha) along the slopes of Ba Thê Mountain and Zone B (289.3 ha) encompassing the low-lying Óc Eo field (Fig. 2). This configuration illustrates a deliberate urban arrangement linking sacred precincts with hydraulic infrastructure, where elevation played a critical role in environmental management and flood adaptation.
As a civilization situated at the interface of freshwater and coastal ecologies, Óc Eo relied on highly adaptive water management strategies. Excavations at sites such as Gò Cây Me and Nền Chùa have revealed brick-lined wells and orthogonal canals oriented along geomorphological contours (Bui et al., 2022; Nguyen & Pham, 2022). Rather than serving purely functional purposes, these features ormed a "dual infrastructure" embedded within a cosmological framework in which water and sacred geometry played central roles in spatial planning (Singh, 1994).
Although previous studies have documented the Óc Eo canal system and settlement distribution, much of the existing literature remains largely descriptive, focusing on typological classification rather than integrative spatial analysis. There is a lack of integrative analysis that situates hydraulic infrastructure, spatial planning, and cultural adaptation within a unified ecological framework. In particular, limited attention has been paid to how ancient communities formulated adaptive responses to fluvial variability while embedding water management systems within social and religious structures.
This study addresses that gap by applying an interdisciplinary methodology that combines archaeological field data (updated to 2025), geospatial analysis, and paleoenvironmental reconstruction. It investigates the ecological and cultural strategies employed by ancient societies in the Óc Eo–Ba Thê region to address the environmental challenges of the Mekong Delta through the construction and spatial organization of hydraulic systems.
This aim is addressed through three objectives: (1) to assess the environmental context of the lower Mekong Delta and corresponding adaptive responses expressed through hydraulic design; (2) to examine how water infrastructure was integrated within ritual landscapes and urban planning practices; and (3) to synthesize these dimensions through an in-depth case study of Canal 16 (Lung Lớn), which serves as a representative example of the interconnection between engineered waterways and ancient urban configuration.
Research Methods
This study employs an interdisciplinary methodology to examine how ancient communities adapted ecologically and culturally to the constraints of a dynamic riverine environment in the lower Mekong Delta. The research integrates archaeological field investigations, inherited geospatial analysis, and historical textual synthesis to reconstruct the spatial logic and ritual significance of hydraulic infrastructure associated with the Óc Eo civilization.
The core empirical foundation derives from extensive archaeological fieldwork carried out between 2007 and 2025. During this period, the authors participated directly in surveys and excavations across southwestern Vietnam, documenting the spatial distribution of Óc Eo remains and analyzing the relationships between architectural foundations, canal traces, and the natural landscape. Primary data were obtained from the national research initiative titled "Archaeological Investigation of the Óc Eo – Ba Thê and Nền Chùa Sites" (2017–2020), and subsequently complemented by updated surveys conducted in 2024 and 2025. These later field efforts focused on assessing the preservation of major monuments and reviewing curated artifacts at the Óc Eo Cultural Heritage Management Board and provincial museums in An Giang and Kiên Giang. This comprehensive dataset supports a robust reconstruction of settlement layout and hydraulic integration (Fig. 3)(Bui et al., 2022; Nguyen and Pham, 2022).
Hydrological reconstructions were based on the synthesis of previously published remote sensing and GIS data. Although the authors did not perform original image processing, they integrated results from earlier analyses of ASTER and Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery, as well as digital elevation models processed in QGIS and ArcGIS Pro. These geospatial datasets made it possible to identify buried canal alignments and flood-control features obscured by Holocene alluvium. The correlation of these spatial traces with temple sites and habitation mounds provided insights into how ancient watercourses were embedded within both functional and symbolic urban matrices (Nguyen et al., 2020).
The study is grounded in theoretical perspectives from Ritual Landscape Archaeology and Hydrosocial Archaeology, which emphasize that hydraulic systems in ancient societies functioned simultaneously as technical infrastructure and as manifestations of cosmological order. Within this framework, canals, reservoirs, and architectural orientations are interpreted as dual-purpose features that facilitated both environmental adaptation and ritual performance. These perspectives allow for a holistic reading of space wherein infrastructural elements reflect Indic cosmological models and local geomorphological constraints (Insoll, 2004; Fogelin, 2007; Nguyen et al., 2025).
A representative case study focuses on Canal No. 16 (Lung Lớn) in the Óc Eo – Ba Thê complex. This canal was selected for its exceptional state of preservation, historical prominence, and visibility in both archaeological and geospatial records. The case study is used to demonstrate the spatial coordination between hydraulic engineering and monumental construction, analyzed through orientation patterns, sediment profiles, and landscape alignment. Its selection reflects both methodological accessibility and cultural significance.
Comparative analysis further contextualizes the Óc Eo canal system within broader regional patterns of fluvial urbanism. Case comparisons with ancient water-based cities such as Angkor Borei, Mohenjo Daro, and Varanasi reveal shared strategies of hydraulic adaptation and cosmological spatial design, while also highlighting distinctive features of settlement planning in the Mekong Delta (Singh, 1994).
Finally, historical chronicles, epigraphic inscriptions, and colonial surveys are employed to embed the archaeological findings within their broader sociopolitical and ritual contexts. Sources such as the Liang Shu, Khmer temple inscriptions, and the French archaeological reports of Malleret (1959–1963) contribute to understanding the roles of water management in state formation, religious landscape planning, and cultural resilience across centuries of environmental fluctuation (Pelliot, 1903; Gutschow, 1994).
Riverine Landscape Constraints and Environmental Setting of the Óc Eo Cultural Area
The Óc Eo culture flourished in a coastal lowland shaped by successive Holocene marine transgressions and regressions. From approximately 4850 BCE to the 12th century CE, four major sea-level fluctuations contributed to the formation of a low-relief terrain composed of alluvial plains, sandy ridges, granite outcrops, and stabilized uplands (Lieu, 1984). Continuous sediment deposition from the Mekong River played a significant role in reshaping the deltaic landscape and laid the foundation for early agricultural expansion and urban settlement.
Between 3500 and 2700 years before present, a notable marine regression caused sea levels to fall by 5 to 6 meters, expanding the coastal plain and exposing elevated land-forms such as Sam Mountain and the Thất Sơn range (Le et al., 1991). Observations by Louis Malleret in the early 20th century identified mangrove belts surrounding Ba Thê Mountain and flood-prone terrain subjected to prolonged seasonal inundation. During the southwest monsoon, water levels could reach up to two meters, with full drainage not occurring until March or April (Malleret, 1959).
Archaeological remains of the Óc Eo culture are distributed across four geomorphological zones: (1) low-lying floodplains such as the Long Xuyen Quadrangle, Ô Môn–Phụng Hiệp, U Minh–Cạnh Đền, and Đồng Tháp Mười; (2) elevated ancient alluvial terraces and granite uplands including the Sam and Bảy Núi ranges, and the river basins of Vàm Cỏ and Đồng Nai; (3) the interfluvial region between the Hậu and Tiền Rivers; and (4) sandy coastal ridges and saline marshlands along the southeastern coastline (Le et al., 1995; Bui, 2003; Bui, 2018). This spatial configuration highlights the interdependence between topographical features and hydrological conditions in determining settlement patterns.
Topographic elements such as elevated mounds, natural depressions, swamps, and palaeochannels formed a distinctive hydro-geomorphic matrix. High ground offered refuge during floods, while lower-lying areas functioned as water catchments and cultivation zones. The hydrological framework was defined by the Tiền and Hậu Rivers in conjunction with an intricate system of natural streams and canals.
The monsoonal tropical climate, characterized by abundant precipitation and moderate temperature variability, was highly conducive to wet-rice cultivation and rotational cropping. The convergence of topography, hydrology, and climate created optimal ecological conditions for intensive agrarian production and the emergence of urbanized port complexes such as Óc Eo.
Within this planned but environmentally bounded landscape, canal engineering became a core strategy of land-use and urban organization. The Long Xuyen Quadrangle, in particular, developed into a densely populated zone, systematically structured along palaeo-watercourses and artificially excavated canal axes. A representative case is the Óc Eo–Ba Thê complex. Although situated in a depression less than one meter above sea level, its urban core was built on slightly elevated terrain to facilitate canal construction, water flow regulation, and flood control (Bourdonneau, 2009). The site's proximity to the Hậu River enabled access to alluvial resources and inland–maritime trade routes. Ba Thê Mountain not only supplied lithic material but also served a symbolic and spatial role. This integration of mountain and water embodies the "sơn-thủy-địa" (mountain–water–terrain) principle, underscoring Óc Eo's sophisticated environmental adaptation and distinct landscape planning approach (Dang, 2024).
Based on these geomorphological constraints, the present study delineates the environmental framework within which Óc Eo settlement patterns and hydraulic adaptations took shape.
Hydraulic Infrastructure and Ecological Adaptation to Dynamic Riverine and Maritime Conditions
The formation and endurance of the Óc Eo civilisation within the low-lying Mekong Delta were inextricably linked to a sophisticated hydraulic system. This infrastructure, comprising artificial canals, wells, reservoirs, and retention ponds, extended beyond utilitarian function to serve as a planned response to fluvial–marine dynamics. It enabled subsistence agriculture, facilitated long-distance trade, and supported ritual activities within a monsoon-prone ecological context.
Network Inventory and Spatial Organization
The foundational documentation of this system was initially constructed through aerial surveys. Pierre Paris (1931) first identified a canal running from Angkor Borei (Cambodia) to Ba Thê, which Louis Malleret subsequently expanded into a catalogue of 28 artificial canals stretching over 463 kilometers, most of which remain within the present boundaries of Vietnam (82%) (Malleret, 1959). The comprehensive layout of this foundational network is illustrated in Fig. 4, while the condition and traceability of these 28 key canals are detailed in Table 1. These canals served as aquatic corridors interlinking major archaeological sites across the Long Xuyên Quadrangle. The cartographic mapping of this system, published at a scale of 1:100,000, remains one of the earliest efforts to visualise the spatial logic of ancient water management in southern Vietnam.
Expanded Scope and Strategic Hydrological Management
Since 1975, advances in remote sensing, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and geoarchaeology have significantly expanded understanding of the hydraulic system's scale and intentionality. Nguyen et al., (2020) confirmed that canal networks were deliberately excavated along paleo-channels and geological fault lines to optimise topographical advantage for water retention and drainage. Updated inventories now record an extended system comprising both the original 28 canals and an additional 45 watercourses, with an estimated total length of 726 kilometers. Of this expanded system, 88.6% (643 km) is concentrated within the Long Xuyên Quadrangle (Table 2), reflecting a regionally focused strategy of hydrological adaptation and territorial consolidation (Nguyen et al., 2019).
This scale of engineered intervention underscores the Óc Eo polity's advanced capacity for landscape transformation and environmental governance. The alignment of major canals with elevated mounds, ritual centres, and settlement nodes suggests a tightly integrated system in which water infrastructure underpinned both urban planning and economic productivity. Recent satellite imagery and sediment analysis also identify ancient estuarine zones, such as those near Nen Chua, affirming the role of coastal trade and the hydraulic system's connectivity to maritime exchange routes (Bui et al., 2022).
While earlier studies documented the existence of these canal networks, the present study integrates inherited GIS data with field verification to demonstrate how canal alignment, density, and connectivity reflect a deliberate strategy of ecological adaptation to fluctuating riverine and maritime conditions.
These spatial patterns identified through GIS analysis are consistent with historical descriptions of water oriented urban organization and ritual landscape principles, indicating that hydraulic infrastructure functioned as both a technical system and a culturally embedded spatial framework.
Spatial Organization and Human–Environment Interaction within the Ancient Urban Complex
Building on the preceding findings, this section integrates spatial patterns identified through archaeological investigation and GIS based analysis with historical and theoretical interpretation in order to examine human environment interaction at the urban scale. The spatial organization of the Óc Eo settlement reflects a coherent and intentional design in which hydraulic infrastructure was fully incorporated into urban form and function, supporting both ecological adaptation and long term cultural sustainability. Within this framework, the settlement was enclosed by a system of moats and ramparts defining an area of approximately 450 hectares, measuring about 3,000 by 1,500 meters, as documented in earlier research. This enclosure served a dual role by providing defensive protection while also operating as a central element of water management that regulated seasonal water levels and ensured sustained water retention in a flood prone deltaic setting.
Within this enclosed area, the urban core was defined by an ordered network of longitudinal and transverse canals, indicating a planned spatial system. The primary canal, designated Canal No. 16 (also known as Lung Lớn), ran through the centre of the city, acting as the principal axial waterway. It bisected the settlement into eastern and western sectors and connected with outside canal routes. In addition, four transverse canals further subdivided the area into a grid of four by five rectangular blocks, resulting in twenty urban compartments. This arrangement closely mirrors the layout referenced in the Hanchey inscription (K.81) (Luong, 2006).
Using the Lung Lớn Canal as the principal axis, the city was subdivided into a structured system of sectors illustrated in Fig. 5, organizing residential, ritual, and productive activities. This zoning pattern underscores the role of hydraulic alignment in shaping functional differentiation within the urban landscape (Malleret, 1959).
Today the highest settlement densities persist along both banks of Canal No. 16. Architectural and temple remains are notably concentrated in Sectors I and II along the course of the Lung Lớn canal. For example, Gò Đá No. 11 (Dwl Thma 11) is located on the eastern bank of the canal within Sectors VIII and X (Malleret, 1962). The Giồng Cát mound appears as a major ritual focus, forming a linked axis to Linh Sơn Temple on the eastern slope of Ba Thê Mountain, highlighting the enduring legacy of the water-based urban design.
Integrated Case Study: Lung Lớn Canal (Canal No. 16) as a Nexus of Ecological and Cultural Adaptation
The Lung Lớn Canal, officially designated as Canal Number 16, represents a primary axial waterway within the urban core of ancient Óc Eo. Situated adjacent to the base of the Gò Óc Eo mound (Dwl Ur Kev), the canal served as a strategic hydraulic infrastructure linking the central settlement to external fluvial and maritime trade networks. This alignment underscores the canal's foundational role in shaping the spatial and economic organization of the Óc Eo urban complex. Its earliest documentation by Louis Malleret in 1942 further affirms its prominence in the regional hydrography during the Funan period.
Archaeological fieldwork conducted between 2017 and 2020 at two key sectors, A and B - located near Gò Óc Eo and Gò Giồng Cát - opened fourteen trenches across an area of over 1,040 square meters (Fig. 6). Excavations uncovered habitation layers with cultural materials such as ceramic fragments, wooden posts, botanical remains, and faunal bones. Particularly noteworthy is the dense spatial clustering of multicolored Indo-Pacific glass beads along the canal bank at Sector A. This distribution pattern strongly suggests that the site functioned as a transshipment point for high-value goods, consistent with regional evidence of craft production and trade intensification.
Geophysical surveys confirmed the canal's morphology, with a preserved width ranging from 30 to 35 meters and a depth between 1.5 and 2.0 meters. The recovery of intact wooden paddles from the canal bed provides direct material evidence of its function as a navigable watercourse used for transportation and exchange (Nguyen et al., 2022). This infrastructural functionality aligns with broader models of settlement-waterway interaction documented across the lower Mekong delta.
Chronometric data derived from AMS radiocarbon dating of organic samples indicates that the Lung Lớn Canal was in active use from the second to the sixth centuries CE. This timeframe overlaps with the zenith of the Funan polity, highlighting the canal's significance in sustaining a complex socio-economic system. The integrated function of Lung Lớn as both a hydraulic spine and commercial corridor reinforces the interpretation of Óc Eo as a state-level urban network with global maritime connections.
Results and Discussion
Ecological Adaptation and Environmental Resilience
To address the first research objective concerning environmental constraints and adaptive strategies, this section evaluates how hydraulic infrastructure functioned as a proactive response to the dynamic riverine conditions of the Mekong Delta. The flourishing of wet rice agriculture and urban development in the ancient Óc Eo Civilization was fundamentally grounded in its advanced hydraulic infrastructure, which enabled early agrarian communities to adapt to seasonal monsoonal flooding and create a highly integrated riverine landscape (Isendahl et al., 2023). Historical sources and archaeological studies confirm that Funan was interwoven with canals used for irrigation and transportation, marking it as one of the earliest irrigation-based states in Southeast Asia (Thepa, 2021; Pelliot, 1936). This large-scale water management system, which ensured reliable irrigation during dry seasons and effective drainage during wet periods, reflects a sophisticated capacity for regulating water resources and implies a highly organized social structure capable of mobilizing coordinated labor (Stark, 2015). Geophysical investigations specifically identified Canal 16 (Lung Lớn) as a major U-shaped channel approximately 3 to 4 meters deep, serving as a primary axial waterway within the urban core (Le et al., 2019).
The urban configuration of Óc Eo demonstrates a high degree of ecological responsiveness, where elevated embankments formed by excavated sediments provided stable foundations for stilt houses in permanently inundated lowland settings. Excavations at Lung Lớn revealed physical remains of these structures, attesting to an indigenous knowledge system adapted to deltaic ecological conditions (Bui, 2023; Bui et al., 2022). This hydraulic network was central to agricultural productivity, sustaining wet rice cultivation by regulating water supply and distributing fertile alluvium (Wang et al., 2023). Furthermore, the network played a transformative environmental role by delivering freshwater and leaching soil acidity, thereby improving the agricultural viability of a naturally challenging terrain (Dang et al., 2025). Integrating irrigation, transport, and environmental management, the canal system formed one of Southeast Asia's most sophisticated early water control networks (Manguin and Stark 2022).
However, this deep ecological dependence also exposed the Óc Eo settlement to environmental vulnerabilities. Geomorphological studies, particularly at the ancient estuarine zone of Nền Chùa, indicate that extensive sedimentation and coastal shifts were critical factors contributing to the decline of this maritime urban center (Nguyen et al., 2020). Consequently, the gradual abandonment of Óc Eo may be interpreted as a prolonged process of environmental migration, offering parallels to contemporary livelihood challenges in the modern Mekong Delta (Trinh and Nguyen, 2021). In sum, the Óc Eo–Ba Thê canal network served as an ecological, economic, and spatial engine that sustained urban life while embodying a deltaic strategy of resilience and connectivity.
Cultural Adaptation and Interregional Comparison
To address the second research objective, this section investigates the integration of hydraulic systems into the cultural and ritual spatial organization of the Óc Eo civilization. Community-based cooperation in water management and ritual organization reflects a resilient social mechanism, a legacy that continues to inform contemporary sustainable urban strategies in the Mekong Delta (Do et al., 2025). The Óc Eo urban complex served as a central node of the Funan Kingdom, forming an integrated cultural landscape where residential-trading zones, religious centers blending Buddhist and Hindu elements, and productive craft areas were supported by stable agriculture (Bui et al., 2022). Canals within this framework functioned beyond mere utility by delineating sacred boundaries and enhancing the sanctity of temple complexes, consistent with broader Southeast Asian religious architecture. These hydraulic features possessed deep symbolic value, with water serving as a sanctified medium for Buddhist diffusion along riverine and maritime corridors (Meng and Li, 2023). Specifically, the Lung Lớn canal channeled both material and cultural flows, including Indian religious influences that were selectively adapted to local conditions.
Archaeological findings indicate Óc Eo as a hub of cultural and technological convergence where foreign ideas were reinterpreted through advanced engineering and strategic canal-based urban planning. Settlement began between the 1st and 3rd centuries, with inhabitants constructing stilt houses and gradually transforming natural waterways into a gridded urban fabric intersected by the Lung Lớn canal. Commercial prosperity peaked between the 2nd and 5th centuries, driven by maritime trade with India, Rome, and China, while the spatial integration of functions remained closely tied to hydraulic infrastructure. Regionally, the relationship between Óc Eo and Angkor Borei illustrates a dual-urban model; while Angkor Borei sat on elevated land fortified by moats, Óc Eo utilized canals and embankments for urban stability (Manguin and Stark, 2022). This design finds parallels in Mohenjo-Daro and Varanasi, where water was integrated into both practical and sacred dimensions of urban life. The dichotomy of "sacred" and "secular" water within the Óc Eo layout reflects a synthesis of Hindu cosmology and local practices, exemplified by ritual wells positioned according to Varuṇa's doctrine. Ultimately, Óc Eo exemplifies tropical Asian urbanism, where hydraulic infrastructure simultaneously served economic necessity and spiritual requirements.
From Ancient Óc Eo Civilization to the Modern Mekong Delta: Historical Lessons in Hydrospatial Resilience and Sustainability Pathways
Synthesizing the ecological and cultural dimensions discussed previously, this section fulfills the third research objective by deriving historical lessons from Óc Eo's hydrospatial resilience for modern sustainability pathways. Archaeological findings in the Óc Eo Ba Thê region reveal the crucial role of ancient water systems such as canals, paleo rivers, wells, and ponds in shaping urban settlement, agriculture, and spiritual practices. These systems reflect a high level of urban planning and a socially coordinated approach to managing water resources in the Mekong Delta, likely grounded in community-based governance practices that enabled the construction, maintenance, and adaptive use of hydraulic infrastructure over generations. The Lung Lớn canal, the main hydraulic axis, linked residential areas and supported trade and cultural flows, with settlements appearing along its banks from the first to third centuries CE (Vo, 2018). By the fourth to seventh centuries, elevated mounds like Gò Óc Eo and Giồng Cát hosted religious structures with integrated water infrastructure. Óc Eo's hydraulic engineering expanded natural waterways to meet urban and agricultural needs, demonstrating deep geomorphological understanding and centralized governance.
This historical trajectory of Óc Eo's hydraulic legacy provides a critical sustainability paradigm for addressing contemporary environmental pressures. This development occurred in three successive stages: In the first phase (approximately from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE), early settlers constructed stilt houses and excavated canals and moats, transitioning from dispersed, water-adapted dwellings to a more structured and planned urban space. The second phase (circa 4th to 6th centuries CE) marked the peak of the Funan civilization, characterized by temple construction, flourishing maritime trade, and widespread cultural exchanges. During this period, the canal network expanded significantly, integrating spiritual, residential, and agricultural functions across the delta. The third phase (beginning in the 7th century CE and continuing into the early 8th century) witnessed a gradual decline likely driven by massive sedimentation, sea-level rise, and geomorphological transformations that disrupted maritime connectivity and economic sustainability (Manguin and Stark, 2002). Although many ancient canals are no longer visible, parts of this network remained functional through successive adaptations, particularly during the later Vietnamese settlement periods. Hydraulic works such as the Thoại Hà and Vĩnh Tế canals exemplify the continued evolution of this legacy. Recent investigations in 2025 confirmed several canal traces near Óc Eo City, especially in the communes of Vọng Thê and Vọng Đông, as illustrated in Fig. 7.
Lessons derived from the adaptive water strategies of the Óc Eo civilization offer valuable perspectives for current planning in the Mekong Delta. Notably, the sustained practice of communal labor and the long-standing tradition of shared management underscore the enduring relevance of community-based water governance as a cornerstone of long-term resilience. Contemporary models, including those centered on green livelihoods, emphasize nature-based approaches to climate adaptation (Ngo and Nguyen, 2021). UNESCO's integrated approach linking nature, culture, and society should guide the management of the Óc Eo–Ba Thê landscape. In line with national sustainability goals, recent research calls for ecologically based reforms in agriculture and heritage governance to achieve net-zero targets by 2050 (Phuong et al., 2024). The eventual decline of Óc Eo, precipitated by uncontrollable geomorphological shifts like massive sedimentation and coastal progradation (Nguyen et al., 2020), serves as a critical sustainability paradigm for contemporary water governance amidst modern climate pressures and land subsidence.
Conclusion
This study has examined the spatial and hydraulic configuration of the Óc Eo settlement within the Long Xuyên Quadrangle, aiming to clarify how ancient communities responded to the environmental constraints of the Mekong Delta through integrated ecological and cultural strategies. In direct correspondence with the first research objective, the findings demonstrate that the canal system functioned as a proactive solution to challenges posed by monsoonal flooding, sediment dynamics, and freshwater management. Drawing upon archaeological evidence, geomorphological data, and spatial analysis developed during this study, hydraulic infrastructure is shown to have played a foundational role in stabilizing settlements and maintaining wet rice cultivation in a low-lying fluvial landscape.
Regarding the second research objective, the analysis reveals that the layout of canals, elevated platforms, and ritual spaces was informed not only by technical demands but also by cultural conceptions of space. The spatial arrangement of habitation mounds, religious architecture, and production areas along canal alignments suggests a deliberate integration of water management practices with social and ceremonial life. These interpretations are derived from the authors' original field mapping, observational data, and contextual analysis of material remains, particularly through surveys conducted in 2024 and 2025. While existing literature offers essential background, the present study contributes new insights by demonstrating that hydraulic space operated as both an ecological infrastructure and a cultural framework.
In addressing the third research objective, the synthesis of ecological and cultural dimensions positions Óc Eo as a historical exemplar of hydrospatial resilience shaped by long-term interactions between humans and their environment. The development of the settlement reflects how community water governance, collective labor, and adaptive modifications to the landscape enabled continuous occupation over centuries. Simultaneously, the eventual decline of Óc Eo, likely associated with intensive sedimentation and coastal transformation (Nguyen et al., 2020), illustrates the thresholds of resilience in the context of large-scale geomorphological change.
The study's findings offer meaningful contributions to current sustainability discourse in the Mekong Delta. Rather than recommending replication of ancient systems, the research identifies transferable principles such as hydrologically informed settlement planning, landscape-based water storage and drainage, and participatory water management. These insights align with ongoing efforts in nature-based adaptation and culturally grounded planning, particularly in regions confronting salinity intrusion, land subsidence, and diminishing freshwater availability. Ultimately, the Óc Eo case illustrates that resilient cultural landscapes are forged through the continuous negotiation between environmental processes and collective social organization. Grounded in original archaeological data and spatial analysis, this research underscores the relevance of historical water knowledge in informing adaptive and place-based sustainability strategies for deltaic environments.
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