Introduction
Research Background and Purpose
UNESCO World Heritage properties are often evaluated as collective entities under the framework of serial properties, which assess multiple component sites that share common themes and functions. In South Korea, the successful inscription of Sansa, Buddhist Mountain Monasteries in Korea (2018) and Seowon, Korean Neo-Confucian Academies (2019) has provided valuable experience in interpreting inscription criteria, articulating the logical relationships among component parts, and addressing key practical issues such as the adequacy of boundaries and buffer zones. Building on these experiences, the Korea Heritage Service (KHS, 2021) proposed “Gardens and Pavilion Culture” as a candidate for inclusion on the Tentative List, framing traditional gardens as cultural heritage that embodies Confucian values and literary traditions. The proposal primarily examined the applicability of Criterion (iii), which concerns outstanding testimony to a cultural tradition or civilization, while also considering the relevance of Criteria (iv) and (vi), relating respectively to the representativeness of form and to direct associations with literature, art, or ideas. Furthermore, KHS identified a set of refined tasks for advancing serial property nominations, including the selection of components with demonstrated representativeness rather than an all-encompassing nationwide grouping; the adjustment of the nomination scope to reflect regional and typological characteristics; the reassessment of boundaries and buffer zones; and the enhancement of comparative studies to strengthen alignment with international benchmarks. Reflecting these institutional and policy discussions, this study takes as its cases the three Joseon-period byeolseo designated as State Scenic Sites: Soswaewon Garden in Damyang, Yun Seon-do’s Garden on Bogil Island, and Baegundong Garden in Gangjin (hereafter referred to as “Soswaewon,” “Yun Seon-do’s Garden (also known as Buyong-dong Garden),” and “Baegundong Garden,” respectively). Drawing on the criteria of Outstanding Universal Value (OUV), authenticity, integrity, and the requirements for serial properties as set out in the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, this study aims to evaluate their suitability and derive concrete strategies for their inscription as a serial World Heritage property. The term byeolseo is used exclusively in the title and in the context of the conceptual definition, and elsewhere consistently refers to the broader category of traditional Korean byeolseo of the Joseon period.
Related research trends
In South Korea, studies on the process of inscription on the World Heritage List emphasized that World Heritage designation was not merely the presentation of particular values, but rather the construction of a coherent logical framework that satisfied the requirements stipulated in the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention. Lim (2021), through an analysis of the inscription process of the World Cultural Heritage property Sansa, Buddhist Mountain Monasteries in Korea, examined the argumentative structure in which OUV was articulated in conjunction with authenticity, integrity, and systems of protection and management. Lim argued that World Heritage inscription constituted a strategic response to international norms. Similarly, Jeong (2012), by reviewing the conservation and management system of Hanyangdoseong, the Seoul City Wall, in relation to World Heritage criteria and management requirements, demonstrated that value-based argumentation was inseparable from the design of management systems. Furthermore, studies on inscription trends concerning cultural landscapes and mountain heritage highlighted the importance of collective OUV in serial properties, the delineation of boundaries and buffer zones, the establishment of integrated management systems, and the role of international comparative research.
At the policy and administrative levels, KHS (2021), in its research report Newly Discovering Candidates for Korea’s Tentative List of UNESCO World Heritage, proposes “Gardens and Pavilion Culture” as candidates for the tentative list. The report conceptualizes traditional gardens as cultural heritage that embodies Confucian values and literary traditions, while examining the applicability of criteria (iv) and (vi), with a particular focus on criterion (iii). At the same time, it outlines detailed tasks for advancing serial properties, including the selection of representative components, adjustments to scope by region and type, re-evaluation of boundaries and buffer zones, refinement of benchmarks through international comparative studies, and the design of integrated management systems encompassing governance, interpretation, and monitoring. These steps illustrate that the inscription of serial properties is structured as a chained sequence of tasks: object selection, OUV argumentation, boundary and buffer zone design, and the establishment of integrated management systems.
Research on byeolseo of the Joseon period has largely accumulated through analyses of individual cases, with particular emphasis on spatial composition and its relationship to philosophical and literary thought. Yang et al. (2003) examined Yun Seon-do’s Garden on Bogil Island, Soswaewon Garden, Namganjeongsa Study Hall, and Dasan Chodang (the historic site associated with Jeong Yak-yong), focusing on the arrangement of pavilions, circulation systems, and water features. Their study elucidated how the reclusive and self-cultivating ideals of seonbi (Confucian scholars) culture informed the spatial organization and aesthetics of such byeolseo. Lee et al. (2015) investigated the spatial cognition of Soswaewon through an analysis of literary texts, revealing the perceptual structure and symbolic meanings embedded in the byeolseo landscape. Lee et al. (2017) analyzed the meanings and spatial placement of plants depicted in Forty-eight Poems of Soswaewon Garden (瀟灑園四十八詠) and Soswaewondo (瀟灑園圖, Painting of Soswaewon Garden), clarifying the interreferential relationships among poetic expression, visual representation, and landscape composition. Ko (2021) demonstrated how literary and philosophical traditions are spatially embodied within the byeolseo landscape by examining the relationship between Eobusasisa (Sijo of a Fisherman’s Four Seasons) by Yun Seon-do and his Buyong-dong Garden, thereby elucidating the ideological and literary foundations underlying the garden’s design.
While previous studies have contributed to a deeper understanding of byeolseo in relation to World Heritage frameworks, national heritage policies, and the spatial–literary characteristics of individual sites, there remains a notable gap in research that collectively examines the three Joseon byeolseo sites—Soswaewon, Yun Seon-do’s Garden (Buyong-dong Garden), and Baegundong Garden—as components of a serial property. In particular, few studies have systematically articulated their shared values in accordance with the criteria of OUV, authenticity, and integrity, as well as the specific requirements for serial properties outlined in the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention. This study seeks to fill this gap by focusing on the three byeolseo sites and specifying the logical framework and strategic approach for their serial World Heritage inscription.
Research Scope and Methods
Research Scope
This study focuses on Soswaewon, Yun Seon-do’s Garden, and Baegundong Garden—three byeolseo of the Joseon Period designated as Scenic Sites in South Korea. Constructed during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, these garden villas represent stream-side byeolseo and exemplify the archetypal valley-style gardens developed by Joseon seonbi (Confucian scholars). Characterized by pavilions arranged along valleys and water features, they integrate functions of retreat, self-cultivation, and poetic appreciation. Owing to these characteristics, the three sites constitute a core group of case studies for examining the potential inscription of Joseon byeolseo as a serial property on the UNESCO World Heritage List. At present, a total of twenty-two Joseon-period byeolseo are designated as Scenic Sites, encompassing a wide range of types in terms of period of construction, topographical setting, spatial composition, and functional attributes. Table 1 presents a chronological overview of these twenty-two sites. To assess the potential of Joseon byeolseo as candidates for inscription as a serial World Heritage property, this study establishes four primary selection criteria: (1) official designation status as national cultural heritage; (2) integrity of garden components; (3) availability and adequacy of relevant visual sources, including documents, paintings, and maps; and (4) current conditions of management and preservation.
In examining Joseon-period byeolseo as prospective candidates for inclusion in a World Heritage serial property, the study established the following principal selection criteria: official designation status as national cultural heritage; the integrity of garden components; the availability and adequacy of relevant visual sources, including documents, paintings, and maps; and the current conditions of management and conservation. Based on these criteria, twenty-two byeolseo listed in Table 1 were identified as the initial subjects of investigation. These sites, however, exhibit considerable variation in terms of their periods of formation, locational contexts, spatial composition and functions, histories of preservation and maintenance, and the the quantity and quality of surviving literary and visual sources, such as poems, records of construction, plaques, and rock inscription. Such disparities make it difficult to apply a uniform level of comparative analysis across all cases. To ensure an appropriate degree of comparability for evaluating their potential as serial properties, this study narrows its focus to byeolseo established during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, a period marked by the flourishing of Joseon literati (seonbi) culture, while also exhibiting clearly differentiated typological characteristics. The selected sites are those for which formative ideals and modes of appreciation can be substantiated through correspondence between textual records and extant physical features, and whose core components and surrounding settings remain relatively well preserved. This allows for empirical discussion of authenticity, integrity, and integrated management. As a result, Soswaewon, Baegundong Garden, and Buyong-dong Garden were selected as representative examples of the valley-type, winding-stream-type, and insular/coastal-type byeolseo, respectively. Collectively, these sites demonstrate thematic coherence centered on “reclusion and literary cultivation,” while also exhibiting mutual complementarity among the components of the proposed serial property. In contrast, some other byeolseo designated as Scenic Sites were excluded from the scope of this study, either because there were uncertainties in documentary evidence concerning their dates of construction, spatial boundaries, or core components, or because cumulative alterations in the modern and contemporary periods have obscured their original forms and underlying value structures, limiting their comparative assessment. Other sites were omitted on the grounds that further investigation into historical documentation and contemporary management systems is required. The following section classifies the twenty-two byeolseo by typology and, based on the criteria outlined above, systematically presents the rationale for selecting the three sites as components of a serial property, together with the logical framework of their interrelationship.
The temporal scope of this study encompasses the entire process of transformation from the initial formation of the three byeolseo to their preservation, restoration, and management systems since the modern period. Analytical emphasis, however, is placed on their formative phase in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and on patterns of maintenance and modification observed during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries The spatial scope is defined by the designated areas and protection zones of each Scenic Site, while also examining the potential extent for reconfiguration of component elements, boundaries, and buffer zones in accordance with the concept of serial properties as set out in the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention. The content scope is limited to the identification and articulation of the OUV and key attributes of the three byeolseo in relation to World Heritage criteria (iii) (cultural traditions), (iv) (type and form; architectural and typological values), and (vi) (associative values linked to literature and ideology). It further examines their authenticity and integrity, assesses their potential to meet the requirements of a serial property, and establishes a foundational framework for inscription and management strategies based on these evaluations.
Research Methods
This study aimed to establish an analytical framework grounded in the evaluation logic of the World Heritage system and to develop an inscription strategy for three byeolseo—Soswaewon, Buyong-dong Garden, and Baegundong Garden—proposed as a serial property on the World Heritage List. First, a set of evaluation criteria was formulated through a comparative analysis of previously inscribed World Heritage properties, including Sansa, Buddhist Mountain Monasteries in Korea and Seowon, Korean Neo-Confucian Academies, as well as international cases such as the Classical Gardens of Suzhou in China, the Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto and Hiraizumi in Japan, the Persian Garden in Iran, and the Medici Villas and Gardens in Tuscany, Italy. Based on these criteria, the eligibility of the three byeolseo as a serial property was examined with respect to the key elements of OUV, authenticity, integrity, and serial property requirements. Finally, the justification for inscription was synthesized into a structured nomination strategy, drawing on official UNESCO and ICOMOS guidelines in conjunction with relevant national archival records (Fig. 1).
Results and Discussion
Inscription Requirements and Evaluation Issues for Serial Properties
The World Heritage System and Its Inscription Criteria
The UNESCO World Heritage system, established under the 1972 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage and governed by the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, provides an international framework for evaluating common heritage properties of humanity that possess OUV. According to Paragraph 77 of the Operational Guidelines, a nominated property must satisfy at least one of the ten inscription criteria (i)–(x). These criteria encompass a wide spectrum of cultural and natural heritage values, including creative achievement; historical and cultural exchange; representativeness of traditions and civilizations; human–environment interaction; associations with ideas, beliefs, and arts; as well as landscapes and natural phenomena, geological and ecological processes, and the conservation of biodiversity. In general, criteria (i)–(vi) apply to cultural heritage, whereas criteria (vii)–(x) pertain to natural heritage. In the case of Joseon byeolseo, the most relevant considerations correspond to criteria (iv), (v), and (vi). These criteria address landscape forms associated with historical transitions, the materialization of the human–nature relationship, and the spatial expression of Confucian and Neo-Confucian philosophies. The detailed wording of the World Heritage inscription criteria is summarized in Table 2. In the main text, however, only those criteria directly relevant to byeolseo are selectively referenced. This approach is intended to minimize descriptive discussion of the World Heritage framework itself and to foreground a focused analysis of the study subject.
Authenticity, Integrity, and Requirements for Serial Properties
The Operational Guidelines stipulate that the fulfillment of one or more inscription criteria alone is not sufficient for inclusion on the World Heritage List; rather, the OUV of a property must be demonstrated through the assessment of its authenticity and integrity. Authenticity provides a framework for examining whether the identity and meaning of a heritage property have been sustained over time. This assessment considers attributes such as form and design; materials and workmanship; function and use; transmitted knowledge and management practices; as well as location and setting, and placeness and spirituality. Integrity, by contrast, is a holistic concept used to assess whether a property encompasses the scope and components necessary to express its value, the degree to which deterioration and adverse impacts are controlled, and the effectiveness of its protection and management systems.
Serial properties are subject to these general requirements but are further characterized by consisting of two or more component parts that collectively convey a single OUV. Paragraphs 137–139 of the Operational Guidelines specify that serial properties must simultaneously demonstrate thematic unity, functional linkage, and an integrated management capacity. Each component should share a common idea, tradition, or function, while forming a complementary structure as a whole. Moreover, boundaries, buffer zones, management plans, and monitoring systems must be coordinated and operated in an integrated manner across all components. The inscriptions of Sansa, Buddhist Mountain Monasteries in Korea and Seowon, Korean Neo-Confucian Academies exemplify successful serial nominations, in which multiple sites associated with a shared religious or ideological tradition were recognized under a unified framework of OUV. These cases provide pertinent comparative references for conceptualizing a serial inscription framework for byeolseo.
World Heritage Nomination Process and Evaluation Focus
The World Heritage nomination process may be broadly divided into three stages: the submission of the nomination dossier by the State Party, the evaluation conducted by the Advisory Bodies (ICOMOS and IUCN), and the final decision adopted by the World Heritage Committee. In the first stage, the State Party submits the nomination dossier to the World Heritage Centre, providing a comprehensive description of the property’s OUV, authenticity, integrity, and its protection and management framework. The Advisory Bodies subsequently undertake a desk-based review and an on-site evaluation in order to examine the credibility of the proposed values, the state of conservation, and the adequacy of protection and management systems. On the basis of these assessments, the Advisory Bodies submit a formal recommendation to the World Heritage Committee. Drawing on these evaluations, the Committee decides whether to inscribe the property on the World Heritage List, to defer the nomination for further information or revision, or to not inscribe the property. In the case of serial properties, particular emphasis is placed on the extent to which the individual components demonstrate thematic and functional coherence, as well as on whether a consistent and integrated management strategy is clearly articulated across the entire series.
Case Analysis
The preceding examination of the structure and procedures of the World Heritage system has outlined the conditions required for inscription on the World Heritage List, as well as the evaluative framework applied in the decision-making process. However, an understanding of institutional requirements alone is insufficient. A closer analysis of specific cases is necessary to identify the actual logic and strategies employed during the inscription process. In particular, properties that have already been inscribed as serial nominations, both in South Korea and internationally, offer valuable comparative references for assessing the potential eligibility of Joseon byeolseo. This study therefore first analyzes the inscription processes of Korean serial properties—such as Seowon, Korean Neo-Confucian Academies and Sansa, Buddhist Mountain Monasteries in Korea—with the aim of identifying characteristic domestic strategies employed in successful nominations. It then examines selected cases of garden heritage inscribed as World Heritage properties in China, Japan, Iran, and Italy, from which strategic implications for the nomination of byeolseo are derived.
Korean Cases: Sansa and Seowon as Serial Properties
The serial property Sansa, Buddhist Mountain Monasteries in Korea (inscribed in 2018) exemplifies the sustained continuity of the Korean Buddhist monastic tradition and the distinctive characteristics of its mountain settings. These attributes formed the basis for its inscription under Criterion (iii), which recognizes properties that bear “exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization.” The rationale presented in the State Party’s nomination dossier emphasized conformity with Criterion (iii) by highlighting both the uninterrupted continuation of monastic practices and the spatial specificity of mountainous locations. In contrast, the ICOMOS Advisory Report adopted a reserved view regarding the applicability of Criterion (iv), noting that the architectural vocabulary of the monasteries was not sufficiently distinct from that of comparable architecture beyond the regional context. Following deliberation, the World Heritage Committee ultimately confirmed the inscription of the property solely under Criterion ( iii). On the other hand, Seowon, Korean Neo-Confucian Academies (inscribed in 2019) also sought inscription under Criterion (iii), emphasizing the integration of Confucian educational and commemorative functions, as well as the shared spatial organization and locational characteristics among its component sites. During the initial evaluation process, ICOMOS requested further clarification regarding both the number of components and their coherence as a serial property, and consequently recommended deferral of the nomination. In response, the State Party submitted a supplementary dossier that systematically demonstrated how the nine Seowon were unified by a common ideational framework and consistent formal characteristics. This additional clarification led to the World Heritage Committee’s decision to inscribe the property following re-evaluation.
The two cases demonstrate distinct approaches to serial property inscription. Sansa was inscribed following the World Heritage Committee’s determination that the property met the requirements of Criterion (iii), whereas seowon achieved inscription only after an initial deferral and the subsequent submission of supplementary documentation that refined both the scope of the serial property and the rationale for its component parts. In both cases, ICOMOS drew attention to the potential risk that a high degree of formal repetition among component elements could diminish their individual distinctiveness. The Advisory Body emphasized that each component should contribute independently to the OUV while simultaneously maintaining coherence and integrity at the level of the serial property as a whole. As summarized in Table 3. both sansa and seowon were ultimately inscribed under Criterion (iii), while the initially proposed application of Criterion (iv) was not accepted during the ICOMOS evaluation process. In both nominations, the primary emphasis was placed on demonstrating thematic coherence and temporal and regional representativeness across the component parts. Through the resubmission process, adjustments to the number of components and the strengthening of comparative analyses led to successful inscription. These experiences underscore several critical strategic considerations for the prospective nomination of byeolseo as a serial property, particularly with regard to the selection of inscription criteria, the determination of an appropriate component scope, and the formulation of effective responses to ICOMOS evaluation feedback.
This comparison offers several important implications for advancing the potential serial inscription of byeolseo properties. First, the compositional framework of the serial property should be carefully refined to avoid the mere replication of similar garden typologies, ensuring that each individual garden demonstrates its own distinctive values while simultaneously fulfilling complementary roles within the whole. Second, a systematic approach to demonstrating authenticity should be established by linking documentary and archival sources with the physical attributes preserved in situ, to substantiate the property’s cultural meanings and underlying ideas. Third, an integrated management plan and shared governance structure should be prepared in advance to coordinate geographically dispersed gardens as a coherent serial property. Accordingly, the inscription processes of sansa and Seowon provide valuable precedents for formulating strategic directions toward the serial nomination of byeolseo.
Overseas Cases: Garden Heritage Inscribed on the World Heritage List
Garden heritage sites outside Korea were inscribed relatively early within the framework of the World Heritage Convention, with each country adopting distinct strategies to demonstrate the universality of its traditional gardens. Notable examples include the Classical Gardens of Suzhou in China; the Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto and Hiraizumi in Japan; the Persian Garden in Iran; and the Medici Villas and Gardens in Tuscany, Italy. These properties were inscribed on the basis of their philosophical foundations and typological systems. These cases demonstrate that gardens are not merely aesthetic landscapes, but rather spatial embodiments of the philosophical thought and cultural traditions of their respective historical contexts. At the same time, they reveal shared challenges in the inscription and conservation process, including the risk of formal repetition, insufficient management frameworks, and limitations in defining conservation scopes, including boundary and buffer zones. A review of these international inscription experiences thus offers valuable comparative criteria for assessing and articulating the World Heritage potential of byeolseo
China: The Classical Gardens of Suzhou (inscribed in 1997; extended in 2000)
The Classical Gardens of Suzhou, which encapsulate the essence of garden traditions developed during the Ming and Qing dynasties, were inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1997, with additional component properties added in 2000. During the evaluation process, criteria (i) through (v) were considered, with particular emphasis placed on criteria (iii) and (iv). ICOMOS acknowledged the harmony between natural landscape elements and constructed features, recognizing the Suzhou gardens as exemplary representations of East Asian garden design. At the same time, ICOMOS noted issues of categorical overlap with other garden sites within China, and called for a clearer articulation of the individuality of each component property as well as a more coherent explanation of the integrity of the serial system as a whole. In terms of protection and management, initial limitations in inter-agency coordination were identified, but these were subsequently addressed through the formulation of an integrated management plan during the extension evaluation process. These assessment outcomes indicate that, in considering a potential serial nomination of byeolseo, it is crucial to avoid reductive descriptions or comparisons, such as characterizing them simply as “similar to Chinese gardens.” Instead, the nomination narrative should strategically foreground the distinct intellectual foundations and cultural context of the Joseon period—particularly Neo-Confucian concepts of reclusion and the associated literary and artistic practices that shaped the spatial logic of byeolseo.
Japan: The Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto (1994) and Hiraizumi (2011)
The Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto constitute a serial property comprising seventeen component sites distributed across the three cities of Kyoto, Uji, and Otsu. Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1994 under criteria (ii) and (iv), the property collectively represents the long-term evolution of Japanese wooden architecture as well as the outstanding achievements of traditional garden design. The management framework is primarily grounded in the Act on Protection of Cultural Properties, together with the Act on Special Measures concerning Preservation of Historical Scenery in Ancient Cities and the Landscape Act. Under this framework, development within designated buffer zones is strictly controlled, and building heights are regulated to mitigate visual and physical impacts on the heritage setting. Given the inherent vulnerability of wooden structures, fire prevention is identified as the foremost risk management priority. Accordingly, automatic fire detection and suppression systems have been installed, complemented by continuous public–private cooperative arrangements. These institutional and governance measures provide a robust foundation for safeguarding both the integrity and authenticity of the serial property as a whole, as well as of its individual component sites.
On the other hand, Hiraizumi comprises a group of temples, gardens, and archaeological sites that symbolize the Buddhist Pure Land, giving tangible form to the spatial conception of the Buddha’s paradise through the deliberate alignment and visual coherence linking Mount Kinkeisan, temple structures, and associated ponds. Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2011 under criteria (ii) and (vi), the property includes both gardens that have been reconstructed on the basis of archaeological excavation results and others that remain preserved in a buried state. In accordance with these characteristics, the property’s boundaries and buffer zones were delineated to protect key visual corridors and spatial relationships. Furthermore, any phased restoration or maintenance projects are subject to a prior review process in line with Paragraph 172 of the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention. Notably, following the deferral of the nomination in 2008, the property was resubmitted in 2010 and successfully inscribed in 2011 after the strengthening of comparative analyses, the revision of boundaries, and the introduction of new management indicators. This process demonstrates the effectiveness of procedural refinement.
These cases provide direct reference points for developing a serial property inscription strategy for byeolseo. In this approach, OUV is articulated through a dual analytical axis combining criteria (iv) and (vi). Overall cohesion can be demonstrated through diagrams of axes, sight lines, and circulation routes, complemented by an attribute matrix clarifying each component’s contribution. Rationally defined boundaries and buffer zones, together with the advance incorporation of Paragraph 172 procedures—covering prior notification and advisory consultation for major repairs or new construction—and risk management measures within the management plan, allow key evaluation concerns to be addressed proactively. In summary, the proposed strategy: (1) establishes a twofold interpretive axis linking the representativeness of form and spatial composition demonstrated by Kyoto under criterion (iv) with the direct expression of ideological and artistic traditions substantiated by Hiraizumi under criterion (vi); (2) clarifies the individual contributions of component sites while visualizing serial coherence through schematic representations of axes, viewsheds, and movement patterns; and (3) ensures appropriate boundary and buffer-zone delineation by embedding these management measures as a proactive response to the principal focuses of World Heritage evaluation.
Iran: The Persian Garden (2011)
The Persian Garden in Iran was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2011 as a serial property comprising nine component sites. The nomination was evaluated under criteria (i)–(iv) and (vi), among which criterion (iv), emphasizing formal and typological exemplarity, and criterion (vi), highlighting philosophical continuity, constituted the decisive grounds for inscription. The ICOMOS evaluation acknowledged the spatial manifestation of the concept of “paradise” from antiquity to the present, as well as the dissemination of this garden typology into Mughal and wider Islamic garden traditions, thereby supporting its relevance under criterion (ii). However, ICOMOS identified challenges related to the integrated management of geographically dispersed component sites, along with concerns regarding the diminished authenticity of certain elements, as issues requiring improvement. This case indicates that, in considering the prospective serial inscription of byeolseo, it is crucial to clearly articulate their underlying philosophical and literary foundations—such as Neo-Confucian ideals of reclusion—while also establishing an integrated management framework at an early stage to effectively coordinate dispersed properties.
Italy: The Medici Villas and Gardens in Tuscany (2013)
The Medici Villas and Gardens in Tuscany, Italy, were inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2013 as a serial property comprising fourteen component sites across the Tuscany region, including twelve villas and two gardens. The nomination was evaluated under criteria (ii), (iv), and (vi), with criterion (iv), emphasizing formal and typological exemplarity, and criterion (vi), highlighting associations with artistic and intellectual traditions, serving as the principal grounds for inscription. ICOMOS recognized that the ensemble of architectural works, gardens, and surrounding agricultural landscapes spatially embodies Renaissance ideals. At the same time, it identified potential threats posed by modern development in the vicinity of certain components and emphasized the need to strengthen long-term protection and management mechanisms. This case indicates that, in advancing the serial nomination of byeolseo, it is essential to conceptualize the property as a complex cultural landscape that integrates tangible attributes— such as pavilions, water features, and plantings— with intangible ideological values grounded in philosophies of reclusion and associated literary practices. Furthermore, an integrated management framework encompassing geographically dispersed components should be established from the outset to ensure coherence and sustainable conservation.
Synthesizing overseas cases of garden heritage inscription demonstrates that each property constructs its OUV through the conjunction of philosophical foundations and typological systems, while also revealing recurrent challenges, including formal redundancy, insufficient management frameworks, and limitations in the delineation of boundaries and buffer zones. These accumulated experiences point to several strategic directions for the prospective serial nomination of byeolseo. First, distinctiveness and differentiation must be clearly established by positioning Neo-Confucian ideals of reclusion and associated literary traditions as the central interpretive axis. The integrated value of the property should be articulated through the close interrelationship between tangible and intangible attributes. Moreover, the essential requirements of a serial property—conceptual coherence, connectivity among components, and integrated systems of protection and management—need to be systematically incorporated from the initial stages of nomination planning. Presenting substantiated grounds of authenticity and integrity in conjunction with a comprehensive management framework is essential in order to strengthen the credibility of byeolseo as a serial property. Based on this analysis in this section, the principal implication of the case studies is the need for a focused examination of the applicability of inscription criteria (iii), (iv), (v), and (vi) to byeolseo in the following section, as shown in Table 4.
Synthesis: The Distinctive Attributes of Byeolseo
A synthesis of the inscription processes of domestic and international garden heritage properties reveals that each case articulates its values through a distinctive ideological background and the typological representativeness of its landscape form. They were recognized as serial or multiple-component properties, with recurring evaluative issues focusing on the requirements of serial properties, the authenticity and integrity of the sites, and the adequacy of integrated management plans. Korean heritage properties, Sansa and Seowon each established thematic coherence and functional–spatial interrelationships grounded in shared traditions of Buddhist practice or Confucian education and ritual. By contrast, overseas garden heritage properties— rooted in royal, aristocratic, or institutional traditions of garden creation—combined formal typological representativeness with ideological significance to substantiate their OUV.
In comparison, Joseon-period byeolseo exhibits both typological and ideological distinctiveness in that it does not represent an extension of of national power, but rather constitutes a spatial manifestation of a Neo-Confucian way of life centered on retreat, self-cultivation, social exchange, and literary activity within a natural setting. Pavilion-centered landscapes are organized through natural elements such as streams, rocks, forests, and chagyeong (borrowed scenery), forming an experiential structure in which processes of “appreciation–creation–recording” are repeatedly enacted along sequences of approach, circulation, and viewpoints. The correspondence between literary expressions —such as poetry, prose, commemorative inscriptions, and albums of calligraphy and painting—and spatial elements including pavilions, rocks, and trees continually regenerates and reinforces the sense of place. These attributes position byeolseo as a complex cultural landscape that integrates tangible and intangible components, in which physical garden spaces are inseparably intertwined with literary production and practices of appreciation. Accordingly, byeolseo may be understood as a potential serial property type capable of articulating OUV in a manner distinct from royal or aristocratic garden traditions, both within Korea and internationally. As summarized in Table 3, the four reference cases indicate that, in the World Heritage inscription of garden properties, Criteria (iii), (iv), and (vi) have been invoked more frequently than Criteria (i) and (ii). The Classical Gardens of Suzhou and the Medici Villas and Gardens satisfied Criteria (iii) and (iv) as representative garden typologies and as testimonies to enduring cultural traditions, while the Persian Garden additionally met Criterion (v) by emphasizing sustained interaction with the natural environment. Taken together, these cases suggest a general tendency in garden heritage inscriptions to prioritize Criterion (iii), in conjunction with Criteria (iv) and (vi), while employing Criterion (v) as a complement when necessary.
Analysis of the Feasibility of Serial Property Inscription for Joseon-Period Byeolseo
Drawing on a review of both Korean and international cases of garden heritage, the essential conditions that byeolseo must satisfy to meet the World Heritage evaluation criteria can be summarized as follows: thematic coherence among the components of a serial property; functional and spatial interrelationships; the presence of an integrated management system; the minimization of redundancy or overlap; and the assurance of authenticity and integrity. Based on these considerations, this study examines the ideological foundations and spatial characteristics of Soswaewon, Baegundong Garden, and Buyong-dong Garden, and evaluates the validity and potential of applying a serial property framework for their inscription. In this context, the formative ideology of byeolseo should be treated as an independent and critical analytical category in assessing their potential for serial property inscription. Within the World Heritage framework, a cultural property’s OUV is demonstrated by the extent to which the values and ways of life of a particular period and community are embodied in spatial form. This is closely related to the interpretation of inscription criteria (iii), which addresses testimony to cultural traditions or civilizations; criterion (iv), which concerns representative types and forms of cultural properties; and criterion (vi), which emphasizes direct associations with literary or philosophical traditions. Joseon-period byeolseo were created within the Neo-Confucian ideals of reclusion and the culture of seonbi (Confucian scholars). These ideals reflect a way of life that pursued withdrawal from political life (reclusion), self-cultivation, social interaction among intellectual peers, and artistic and literary engagement within natural landscapes. Through an analysis of their formative ideology, it becomes possible to systematically interpret how byeolseo emerged in response to historical circumstances—such as the Gimyo Literati Purge of 1519 and the Manchu invasion of 1636 (Byeongja Horan)—and how diverse spatial types, including valley-type, winding-stream-type, and insular/coastal byeolseo, corresponded to specific philosophical orientations and practical expressions of life.
The four categories presented in Table 4—formative background, formative ideology, literary and artistic evidence, and spatial embodiment—constitute an analytical framework reconstructed to apply World Heritage inscription criteria (iii), (iv), and (vi) to byeolseo cases. Formative background and ideology provide evidence of cultural traditions and civilizations; spatial embodiment demonstrates the representativeness of landscape forms; and literary and artistic evidence elucidates direct associations with philosophy and literature. Taken together, these elements serve as foundational data for the subsequent discussion of the three byeolseo sites with regard to their suitability for serial property inscription.
As shown in Table 5, while the three byeolseo differ in terms of construction period, location, and constructional/compositional approach, they share a common basis in Neo-Confucian thought on reclusion and in the literary tradition. Authenticity may be assessed through the correspondence between documentary sources and extant physical elements, as well as through the continuity of form, materials, function, location, and setting. Integrity, in turn, should be evaluated comprehensively by considering the inclusion of key components, the preservation of surrounding contexts, the control of potential threats, and the effectiveness of protection and management systems. The designation of these sites as National Heritage (Scenic Sites) provides an institutional foundation for their protection and management. However, the assessment of integrity should not rely solely on this designation, but rather on the spatial extent and composition of each site, the continuity of the surrounding environment, and the actual implementation of management practices The typological differences identified earlier justify the distinct roles of each byeolseo within a serial property composition. To operationalize this approach, boundaries and buffer zones must be delineated for each component, and an integrated framework for view, access, and use management—together with monitoring indicators—should be established concurrently.
Traditional Korean gardens are characterized by an adherence to the natural order rather than by an assertive reshaping of the landscape, embodying ideals of retreat and self-cultivation. These spiritual and physical attributes can be substantiated through an integrated interpretation of iconographic sources, textual records, and extant site remains. In the case of Soswaewon, Soswaewondo (瀟灑園圖, Painting of Soswaewon Garden) and the Forty-eight Poems of Soswaewon Garden (瀟灑園四十八詠) provide concrete and detailed accounts of the garden’s spatial configuration and the symbolic meanings embedded in its waterways, pavilions, and chagyeong (borrowed scenery). For Baegundong Garden, the poems and paintings compiled in Baeguncheop (白雲帖, The Baegun Album) vividly depict the meandering stream and the compositional structure of the twelve scenic views. Similarly, in Buyong-dong Garden, Eobusasisa (漁父四時詞, The Fisherman’s Calendar) corresponds closely with extant elements such as Seyeonji Pond, Nangumgye Stream, and Dongcheonseoksil Pavilion, demonstrating a strong unity between philosophical intention and spatial composition. This integrative analytical approach—linking documentary evidence with physical remains—provides a fundamental framework for assessing the authenticity of the byeolseo gardens, understood as the correspondence between texts and sites, as well as their integrity in terms of scope, setting, and management.
Fig. 2 illustrates representative scenes from Soswaewon, Buyong-dong Garden, and Baegundong Garden. Soswaewon exemplifies a valley-type composition, in which pavilions are arranged in close relationship with streams, rock formations, and bamboo groves. Buyong-dong Garden demonstrates a water-oriented design principle centered on Seyeonji Pond, natural rock outcrops, and riparian vegetation. Baegundong Garden, by contrast, reveals a meandering-water layout that integrates the goksugeo (winding watercourse) with courtyards, walls, and pavilions. Collectively, these three byeolseo visually articulate shared principles of harmony with nature while simultaneously exhibiting distinct typological variations.
Authenticity
Within the World Heritage system, authenticity is recognized as a fundamental concept for determining whether the identity and significance of a heritage property have been preserved without distortion through historical change. The Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention define eight attributes of authenticity—form and design; materials and substance; use and function; traditions and techniques; location and setting; language and intangible heritage; spirit and feeling; and other internal and external factors—and stipulate that the authenticity of a site should be evaluated through a qualitative assessment of these attributes. When this framework is applied to Soswaewon, Baegundong Garden, and Buyong-dong Garden, the results of the comparative analysis are summarized as follows.
As shown in Table 5, the three byeolseo demonstrate a high degree of consistency among documentary records, pictorial sources, and the existing physical sites across multiple dimensions, including form, materials, function, traditions, setting, intangible heritage, spirit, and management systems. This correspondence demonstrates not only the physical preservation of their original forms but also the continuity of the intellectual and lifestyle values embedded in their creation, persuasively sustained within the present landscape and management framework. Accordingly, it establishes a robust foundation for the assessment of authenticity, which is essential to discussions concerning the nomination of these byeolseo as a potential serial property. In particular, Table 6 demonstrates the ways in which form and design, materials and substance, use and function, traditions and techniques, location and setting, spirit and feeling, and other attributes collectively substantiate the authenticity of the three byeolseo.
Integrity
The assessment of integrity in this study does not address Joseon-period byeolseo as a whole; rather, it focuses on three representative case studies: Soswaewon, Baegundong Garden, and Buyong-dong Garden. As stipulated in Paragraphs 87–95 of the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, integrity concerns whether a property includes all elements necessary to express its OUV, possesses adequate scope and coherent composition to convey its character and associated processes, and maintains appropriate conditions of setting, protection, and management.
In all three byeolseo, documentary and pictorial records that convey the founders’ philosophical ideals and literary traditions are closely interconnected with extant physical features on site, forming a value structure that integrates tangible and intangible evidence. As noted above, however, national heritage designation primarily provides an institutional framework for protection and management. Therefore, a conclusive assessment of integrity should be grounded in field-based verification of each byeolseo’s spatial scope and composition, environmental continuity, and the effective implementation of management measures. In this regard, the three byeolseo constitute an appropriate and coherent group of cases for empirically examining the integrity conditions required of serial properties proposed for inscription on the World Heritage List.
Requirements for a Serial Property
Paragraphs 137–139 of the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention stipulate that a serial property must demonstrate thematic coherence among its component parts, functional and spatial interrelationships, and the presence—or clear potential —of an integrated management system. The three byeolseo —Soswaewon, Baegundong Garden, and Buyong-dong Garden—share a common Neo-Confucian foundation rooted in retreat and literary cultivation. At the same time, each exemplifies a distinct spatial typology: Soswaewon represents the valley-type byeolseo; Baegundong Garden, the meandering-water type; and Buyong-dong Garden, the insular/coastal type. Considered collectively, they form a complementary typological system. Soswaewon embodies the archetype of a valley garden dedicated to seclusion, self-cultivation, and refined companionship. Baegundong Garden functions as a residential and social landscape organized around the goksugeo (winding watercourse) and poetic gatherings. Buyong-dong Garden represents a byeolseo type that expresses loyalty and literary creativity within a distinctive island and coastal environment.
These shared shared themes, combined with typological differentiation, indicate that the three byeolseo, when presented as a single serial property, could establish a structured framework in which each component contributes in a distinctive manner—through its specific topography, design approaches, and functions—to a collective expression of OUV. Furthermore, as each site has already secured an individual management foundation through its designation as a Scenic Site and the establishment of protective zones, the feasibility of meeting the requirements for serial inscription would be substantially strengthened by the development of an integrated management system. Such a system could encompass the harmonization of buffer zones; coordinated management of visual corridors and access routes; and the standardization of monitoring indicators addressing visitor impact, vegetation management, and hydrological conditions.
Strategy for Serial Nomination
Application Strategy by Criteria
For the three byeolseo, Criterion (iii) is established as the primary axis of nomination, while Criteria (iv) and (vi) function as complementary axes, and Criterion (v) is adopted as a selectively applicable standard. The characteristics and directions of application for each criterion are summarized as follows.
Table 7 presents the strategic direction for applying Criteria ( iii), (iv), (v), and ( vi) to the three byeolseo. Criterion (iii) constitutes the core foundation of the proposed OUV, as it represents the cultural tradition reflected in the byeolseo landscapes through the reclusive practices and literary activities of the Joseon sadaebu (Confucian literati). Criteria (iv) and (vi) play complementary roles by reinforcing the representative typology of gardens and their direct associations with literature and philosophy. Criterion (v) should be selectively applied only to aspects where the interaction between humans and the natural environment is substantiated by evidence. As such, by structuring the nomination so that Criterion (iii) serves as the core, Criteria (iv) and (vi) reinforce its conceptual and formal significance, and Criterion (v) is applied cautiously and only to clearly demonstrable instances of human–environment interaction, the respective roles and hierarchy among the criteria are concisely delineated.
Definition of Components and Integrated Management Direction
To substantiate the OUV of a serial property, it is essential to clearly delineate the scope of core components while simultaneously identifying additional properties with nomination potential. At present, Soswaewon, Buyong-dong Garden, and Baekundong Garden—each designated as a State Scenic Site—represent exemplary cases with established legal protection and may serve as primary components for a serial nomination. However, to strengthen the representativeness and comprehensiveness of the proposed serial property, further byeolseo gardens should be investigated and selected, provided that both documentary evidence and the authenticity and integrity of their spatial configuration can be verified. In this process, redundancy among properties of similar typology should be avoided, while diversity in location, landscape composition, and design methodology should be ensured. At the same time, thematic coherence centered on Neo-Confucian ideals of reclusion and seonbi (Confucian literati) culture should be consistently maintained.
Establishing an integrated management strategy is a key task. As the three byeolseo gardens are currently administered by different local governments and managed independently, the creation of a unified governance structure at the national level will be indispensable during the nomination process. Such a governance framework should encompass a joint interpretive strategy; harmonized conservation and utilization plans; standardized delineation of boundaries and buffer zones; and an integrated system for monitoring and reporting. Precedents such as Sansa, Buddhist Mountain Monasteries in Korea and Seowon, Korean Neo-Confucian Academies demonstrate that geographically dispersed components can be successfully inscribed as a single serial property through the establishment of integrated management committees and coordinated conservation plans that meet the integrity requirements set forth in Paragraphs 87–95 of the Operational Guidelines. Similarly, for the proposed serial nomination of the three byeolseo, a supra-local management structure should be instituted to harmonize operational standards and performance indicators while respecting the distinct values of each component. Furthermore, any major interventions— including restoration, new construction, or installation of facilities—should be subject to prior notification and consultation procedures in accordance with Paragraph 172 of the Operational Guidelines.
Application Patterns of Criteria by Garden
Based on the above combination of criteria, Soswaewon, Buyong-dong Garden, and Baegundong Garden each contribute to the collective OUV in distinct ways, as summarized below.
Table 8 presents a comparative assessment of the applicability of Criteria (iii), (iv), (v), and (vi) to the three byeolseo.
Soswaewon demonstrates particularly strong potential under all four criteria, supported by documentary sources such as the Forty-eight Poems of Soswaewon (瀟灑園四十八詠), construction records, and the integrity retained in its spatial composition. Baegundong Garden shows particular strengths under Criteria (iii) and (vi), supported by the correspondence between literary works on Twelve Scenic Views and rock carvings, and the well-preserved state of its winding watercourse (goksu) landscape. Buyong-dong Garden exhibits potential primarily under Criteria (iii) and (vi) through the interrelationship between the literary work Eobusasisa (漁父四時詞, The Fisherman’s Calendar) and the spatial composition of Seyeonji Pond. Criterion (v) may be selectively applicable across all three byeolseo where material and documentary evidence substantiates a sustained interaction between human activity and the surrounding insular, coastal, or forested environments. Taken together, Criterion (iii) functions as the principal unifying axis of the collective OUV, grounded in the shared theme of “reclusion and the literary culture of the Joseon literati.” Criteria (iv) and (vi) articulate the diverse ways in which this tradition was spatially and intellectually materialized—through valley-type, winding-stream-type, insular/coastal-type garden configurations, as well as through associated literary and philosophical practices. Criterion (v), when applied selectively to properties such as Buyong-dong and Baegundong Gardens where continuity of use and management can be demonstrated, serves as a supplementary justification that reinforces the coherence of the overall evaluative framework. This differentiated yet integrated application of criteria establishes a clear and systematic rationale for the inscription of Joseon byeolseo as a serial World Heritage property.
Conclusion
Soswaewon Garden in Damyang, Yun Seon-do’s Garden on Bogil Island (Buyong-dong Garden), and Baegundong Garden in Gangjin constitute a representative group of byeolseo. These sites share a common ideological foundation rooted in Neo-Confucian ideals of scholarly retreat and literary cultivation, while each articulates these principles through distinctive landscape compositions and modes of appreciation—namely, the valley, island, coastal, and meandering-stream typologies. A analysis of these three byeolseo establishes a theoretical framework for advancing Joseon-period byeolseo as candidates for serial inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List. This framework proposes a criteria-based system that centers on Criterion (iii), supported by Criteria (iv) and (vi), with Criterion (v) selectively incorporated where appropriate.
Criterion (iii) serves to demonstrate that byeolseo gardens bear exceptional testimony to the cultural tradition of the Joseon literati. It does so by establishing that the practices of retreat, self-cultivation, and literary production embodied in Soswaewon, Buyong-dong Garden, and Baegundong Garden are closely interconnected through documentary and artistic records—such as poetry, prose, commemorative inscriptions, and painting albums—as well as through spatial components including pavilions, waterscapes, borrowed scenery, and circulation systems. Criteria (iv) and (vi) operate in a complementary manner to demonstrate the process and structure through which this cultural tradition is concretized in landscape form as well as in literary and intellectual activities. Criterion (iv) elucidates the spatial composition principles typified as valley-, meandering-stream-, and insular/coastal-types, while Criterion (vi) highlights the corresponding relationships among text, space, and practice as manifested in Forty-eight Poems of Soswaewon Garden (瀟灑園四十八詠), Eobusasisa (漁父四時詞, The Fisherman’s Calendar), and Baeguncheop (白雲帖, The Baegun Album). Criterion (v) should be applied selectively and with restraint, limited to particular aspects of Buyong-dong Garden and Baegundong Garden in consideration of the fundamentally non-residential and leisure-oriented character of byeolseo. In these cases, it partially demonstrates the continuity of human–environment interaction through the sustained functions of temporary dwelling, creative activity, reception, as well as the ongoing management of waterscapes and vegetation. From the perspective of a serial property, Soswaewon represents a valley-type byeolseo emphasizing retreat and self-cultivation; Yun Seon-do’ Garden on Bogil Island exemplifies an insular/coastal type, integrating loyalty and literary creation; and Baegundong Garden embodies a winding-stream type, centered on social exchange and poetry gatherings. Although unified by the shared theme of “seclusion and literary cultivation among Joseon literati,” these three byeolseo collectively constitute a composite value structure that cannot be fully embodied by a single component. Each site assumes a complementary role through its distinctive topography, design principles, and modes of appreciation, thereby contributing to a coherent yet diversified serial ensemble. All three byeolseo are already designated as Scenic Sites and are subject to established systems of preservation and management. This existing institutional foundation suggests that, with the formation of a unified national management body, the articulation of shared interpretive guidelines, the standardization of boundaries and buffer zones, and the implementation of an integrated monitoring framework, the properties could progressively satisfy the conditions of integrity and the management requirements necessary for a serial World Heritage nomination.
As this study confines its analysis to three byeolseo— Soswaewon in Damyang, Yun Seon-do’s Garden on Bogil Island, and Baegundong Garden in Gangjin—it necessarily entails limitations in extrapolating its findings to universal conclusions encompassing all Joseon-period byeolseo. Future research should therefore seek to further substantiate the collective value structure and the feasibility of establishing a serial heritage property by expanding the scope of investigation to include additional byeolseo sites, undertaking systematic comparative analyses with East Asian literati and reclusion gardens, and accumulating additional textual, pictorial, and operational sources. Such subsequent studies and the reinforcement of the documentary foundation may serve as the academic groundwork for concretizing a strategic framework for the serial World Heritage inscription of Joseon byeolseo—centered on Soswaewon, Yun Seon-do’s Garden, and Baegundong Garden—during the stages of tentative list preparation, nomination dossier composition, and integrated management planning.
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