Introduction
As time spent indoors continues to increase in modern society (Lohr et al., 2023), the role of indoor plants is expanding beyond simple decoration to include functional and aesthetic value (Calverts, 2024). Initially, tropical and subtropical plants that adapt well to indoor environments were preferred (Sheeran and Rasmussen, 2023). However, recently, plant selection that considers psychological stability, ecological function, and visual harmony has become a trend (Bringslimark et al., 2009; Han and Ruan, 2022). Consequently, indoor plants are being recognized as key elements of space design that enhance emotional stability and environmental quality (Liu, 2024; Biofilico, 2024).
Indoor plants are generally sold as predesigned commercial products that include both the plants and the pots. This shows that factors directly related to consumer aesthetics, such as plant shape, styling, and pot design, significantly impact purchase decisions. Therefore, an analysis of the visual elements and plant composition of these products can provide important insights into the indoor plant design preferences of modern consumers. Despite the gradual spread of Western spatial composition in Korea, traditional Eastern aesthetics and philosophy still influence various design areas (Kwon and Lee, 2015; Italian Bark, 2025). This cultural sensibility is also reflected in the arrangement of indoor plants, with organic shapes, spatial symbolism, and seasonal aesthetics playing central roles. On the other hand, overseas markets tend to prioritize functionality, simplicity, and modern styling (Xu, 2017; Biofilico, 2024) and pursue plant design based on harmony with the space and practicality. Previous studies have primarily focused on the physiological functions or air purification capabilities of plants (Han and Ruan, 2020; 2022), and research on visual elements or compositional aspects has been limited.
This study aimed to visually and quantitatively analyze how cultural aesthetics are reflected in actual plant design. Specifically, (1) plant species diversity, (2) visual and morphological design elements, and (3) planting style characteristics of indoor plant products in domestic and international markets were investigated and analyzed. Thus, IThe goal was to foster a more structured understanding of indoor planting design as well as to provide practical guidelines for plant product development, flowerpot design, space utilization, and aesthetic planning tailored to various consumer markets.
Research Methods
Study scope and image collection
This study targeted commercial brands that sell single-variety indoor plants in individual pots. Three brands were selected from both the domestic and foreign markets, including two from the UK and one from the Netherlands. These two countries, characterized by mild maritime climates, have traditionally exhibited high demand for indoor plants and are known for their extensive green spaces and rich plant species diversity. Furthermore, both countries are renowned for their large-scale floriculture industries (de Jong, 2024; Nursery Management 2025). These climatic and industrial characteristics, along with their cultural practices in plant utilization, served as key criteria for selecting overseas brands.
The specific criteria used for brand selection were as follows:
(1) There must be more than 100 image-based online product lists.
(2) They must operate their own homepages and more than two sales platforms.
Based on these brand criteria, we applied the following criteria to select product images uploaded between April and June, when indoor plant sales are the highest, from three domestic and three foreign brands:
(1) The plant and pot must be clearly identifiable in the same image.
(2) The camera angle and composition must be consistent.
After applying these conditions, 134 images were selected for analysis: 71 images from three domestic brands and 63 images from three foreign brands. At least 20 images were included per brand.
Image analysis
The images were analyzed to extract information on plant species, visual design elements, and planting styles. To ensure cross-verification and accuracy, both the AI-based natural language processing model, ChatGPT (OpenAI, 2024), and the image editing software GIMP 2.34 (GNU Image Manipulation Program) were employed. Specifically, ChatGPT was utilized to interpret image-derived textual information and automatically categorize it according to a predefined classification system, while GIMP served as a supplementary tool for numerical analysis and image-based measurements.
Plant species identification
Plant species were identified based on metadata provided on the official website of each brand. In cases where the information was ambiguous or missing, the scientific name and family classification were cross-verified using Plants of the World Online (http://powo.science.kew.org/).
Analysis of visual design elements
ChatGPT (OpenAI, 2024) was utilized to analyze visual elements such as plant form, color, and texture, transforming this visual information into categorized textual data. The classification of pots was based on 15 typologies from the pollen classification system provided by the online catalog of Nieuwkoop Europe (https://www.nieuwkoop-europe.com/en/planters), a leading European pot distributor. Input prompts were designed to enable the automated classification of pot types, color tones (cast colors), materials (e.g., ceramic, clay), plant surface textures (e.g., matte, glossy), and plant forms (e.g., upright, bushy). All responses generated by ChatGPT were compiled into an Excel-based dataset. To ensure reliability, two researchers independently reviewed and cross-validated the classifications. The average inter-rater agreement was 89.4%, and inconsistencies were corrected manually through visual inspection.
Planting style analysis
Planting style was evaluated based on the spatial ratio and visual harmony between the pot and plant. The vertical and horizontal ratios between the plant and pot were quantitatively calculated using the layer division and pixel measurement tools of GIMP 2.10.34 (GNU Image Manipulation Program; Fig. 1). and the specific procedures were as follows:
(1) The width, height, and area (in pixels) of the pot and plant were measured in the image.
(2) The width ratio, height ratio, and overall area ratio were calculated based on the measured values.
(3) The average and variation (diversification) of each ratio were derived, and statistical comparisons were made between domestic and overseas cases.
Image similarity analysis
An image similarity analysis was performed to quantitatively evaluate the visual consistency and diversity of domestic and foreign brands. Color analysis was applied to extract color histograms from normalized RGB images and convert them into standardized color vectors to compare primary and secondary colors (Gonzalez & Woods, 2003). Texture analysis was used to extract subtle texture differences using the uniform local binary pattern (LBP) technique with a radius of 3 and 24 surrounding pixels applied to grayscale images (Pietikäinen, 2005). Both analyses measured vector similarity through cosine similarity, and statistical significance was examined for differences between groups in color and texture similarity.
Statistical analysis
All statistical analyses were performed using SAS 9.4(SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA), applying one-way ANOVA and independent-samples t-tests to evaluate group differences in color and texture similarity (p < .05). In addition, a Mixed-Effect Model analysis was conducted to examine the differences in plant design factors between countries, with countries specified as a fixed effect.
Results and Discussion
Species composition of indoor potted plants in domestic and foreign markets
Through a comparative analysis of indoor potted plant species distributed in domestic and overseas markets, it was found that the number of plant species, excluding duplicates, was 61 in Korea and 54 overseas, indicating that the domestic market had greater species diversity. The major plant species commonly distributed in both markets were Philodendron selloum, Schefflera actinophylla, Rhapis excelsa, Dracaena marginata, Ficus elastica, and Ficus lyrata, indicating that these species are widely preferred because of their adaptability to indoor environments and their visual appeal. Interestingly, species selection within the same genus varied by market type. For example, more species from the Dracaena and Ficus genera were utilized in overseas markets, which may be due to differences in distribution networks, cultivation conditions, and consumer preferences.
Analyzing plant distribution at the family level (Fig. 2), 29 plant families were identified in the domestic market, of which Moraceae (7 species) and Araliaceae (6 species) were the most frequently utilized. This reflects the tendency of Korean planting design to emphasize morphological diversity and formativeness. In contrast, 14 families appeared in overseas markets, with Asparagaceae (19 species) and Araceae (15 species) accounting for approximately 53% of the total, indicating a selection strategy centered on tropical and subtropical plants that are stable for indoor growth (Sheeran and Rasmussen, 2023; Custom Market Insights, 2025). In addition, while overseas markets prefer tropical plant families with proven indoor growth stability, the domestic market also includes temperate-climate plant families such as Berberidaceae, Ericaceae, Hydrangeaceae, Oleaceae, Rosaceae, and Rubiaceae, showing a mixed planting trend affected by seasonal changes and climate diversity (Chung et al., 2023). These results suggest that while the domestic market has plant selection characteristics that respond flexibly to seasonal and climatic conditions, overseas markets prioritize standardized plant selection based on growth stability and functionality (Tang et al., 2022; Custom Market Insights, 2025).
Characteristics of flowerpot shapes
An analysis of the design elements of flowerpots and plants distributed in domestic and foreign markets revealed a clear difference in preference around flowerpot shapes (Fig. 3A). In Korea, the two shapes of cylinder (43.1%) and globe (44.4%) accounted for 87.5% of the total, revealing a strong preference for specific geometric shapes. On the other hand, overseas brands showed a more diverse distribution of shapes, such as globe (33.9%), oval (33.9%), and cylinder (17.7%), and the diversity of flowerpot shapes was relatively significantly higher (χ2 = 28.89, p = .0013). This may be due to regional differences in design preferences, production standardization, and market segmentation.
Flowerpot color characteristics
Analysis of flowerpot colors (Fig. 3C) revealed that gray tones were the most commonly used in foreign markets, accounting for 43.5% of the total. This finding was statistically significant (Fig. 4C). Furthermore, foreign brands tended to use a wider range of cool colors, including black (6%), blue (6%), and dark gray (3%). In contrast, Korean brands primarily used warm colors, such as brown (24.6%) and light brown (13%), to convey a more natural and comfortable aesthetic. The difference in color distribution between the domestic and foreign markets was statistically significant (χ2 = 53.28, p < .001). These results are consistent with previous research by Daraagruss Design (2024), which found that Korean consumers prioritize emotional comfort and natural beauty, while foreign consumers prefer modern and sophisticated spatial design.
Flowerpot texture characteristics
In terms of flowerpot texture and material, domestic brands utilized various natural materials, such as ceramic (54%), clay (25%), and stone (9%; Fig. 3B). On the other hand, foreign brands showed high standardization, with a single ceramic material usage rate of 90.5% (β = +0.284, p < . 001) (Fig. 4B). This can be interpreted as a result of differences between markets in supply chain structure, material accessibility, and interior styling strategies.
Plant morphology characteristics
Statistically significant differences were confirmed in visual elements such as the shape, color, and texture of indoor plants distributed in the domestic and foreign markets (Fig. 4). In terms of morphology (Fig. 4A), a clear discrepancy was observed between the two regions. In the domestic market, the 'Other' category, which is a mixed or irregular category that is difficult to classify as a specific type, accounted for 52.1% of the total, reflecting consumer preferences for complex and emotionally stimulating plant shapes (Jeong et al., 2020). On the other hand, in the foreign market, the 'Other' type accounted for only 19%, and vertical plants accounted for the highest proportion at 38.1%. Bush or compact plants accounted for 27% of the foreign market, which was higher than their 13% market share in Korea, and palm/rosette plants were also more abundant overseas (11.1%) than domestically (4.2%). Trailing types accounted for 4% of cases in both regions. The use of atypical "open" forms was found to be more prevalent in the domestic market than overseas, exhibiting a highly significant difference (β = −0.424, p < .001) (Fig. 5). This finding confirms a distinct divergence in design sensibilities and spatial utilization strategies between domestic and international markets.
Plant color characteristics
A clear difference between the two regions was also observed in the color distribution of the plants (Fig. 4B). Monochromatic green plants accounted for 90% of the domestic market, showing a consumer preference for stable and simple color compositions (Kim et al., 2023). In contrast, the overseas market showed a higher usage of mixed green colors (19%) and a greater prevalence of patterned plants (11.1%) compared to Korea. Overall, international brands demonstrated a lower reliance on monochromatic green plants and exhibited a stronger preference for color-mixed or patterned varieties (β = −0.249, p < .001) (Fig. 5), showing that foreign markets place greater importance on color diversity and visual variation (Kim et al., 2012).
Plant texture characteristics
The results of the plant texture analysis also showed clear differences between the two markets (Fig. 4C). Smooth-textured plants accounted for 74.6% of the market overseas and 59.2% domestically, which is consistent with the overseas market's preference for refined and sophisticated interior aesthetics. On the other hand, textured plants were used more frequently in Korea (25.4%), suggesting a domestic preference for sensory-rich and nature-inspired textures. Glossy plants accounted for 11.3% of the market domestically and 19% overseas. These findings reflect the essential differences in cultural aesthetics and market design strategies. The Korean market prefers nature-oriented compositions that appeal emotionally based on traditional Oriental aesthetics, such as nature-friendly harmony, seasonal changes, and the beauty of space (yohaku), and have a focus on psychological stability (Wang and Wang, 2024). In contrast, overseas markets are designed around minimalism, smooth surfaces, strong contrasts, and visual consistency, which aligns with Nordic interior trends and modern spatial refinement aesthetics (Skou and Munch, 2016).
Comparative analysis of domestic and foreign indoor planting styles
To examine the design tendencies of domestic and foreign planting styles, the aspect ratio (H/W) of plants was classified into three categories: horizontal (< 1.0), balanced (1.0–1.4), and vertical (> 1.4). The statistical analysis showed that the mean aspect ratio in the domestic market (M = 2.01) was significantly higher than that in the foreign market (M = 1.63; p < .01) (Fig. 6). This indicates that domestic planting styles favor more vertical structures, such as Areca palm, or Ficus benjamina, which create an upward visual effect. In contrast, foreign styles tend to lean toward balanced or horizontally spread types, which are often associated with a sense of visual stability and spread, such as foliage plants or succulents. These results suggest a fundamental difference in spatial utilization strategies, with domestic designs emphasizing verticality and space efficiency, while foreign markets exhibit a preference for stability and horizontal expansion.
To evaluate the visual consistency of domestic (71) and foreign (63) cases, color histograms and LBP-based texture vectors were used to analyze within-group similarities (Fig. 7). Using cosine similarity and independent t-tests, it was found that foreign cases had a higher color similarity (0.978) than domestic ones (0.542; p < .001), indicating a focus on consistent color strategies and standardization. Domestic cases displayed a wider range, reflecting more experimental color combinations. Texture similarity was high in both groups (domestic 0.950, foreign 0.965; p < .001), with smaller differences than color, likely influenced by non-design factors such as material, finishing, or lighting.
Conclusion
This study conducted an in-depth comparative analysis of indoor planting designs in domestic and international markets by utilizing AI-based quantitative image analysis techniques and statistical modeling, focusing on visual elements such as species diversity, form, color, and texture. The results revealed clear distinctions between the two markets in planting design strategies, reflecting underlying differences in cultural aesthetics, consumer psychology, and spatial utilization preferences.
In the domestic market, planting design emphasizes formative diversity, warm-toned pots, irregular plant forms, and textural variety, creating compositions that are both emotionally expressive and visually experimental. This trend aligns with Eastern aesthetics, particularly the concept of yohaku (the beauty of emptiness or margin), and a biophilic emphasis on emotional connectivity with nature. Notably, irregular plant types ("Other") accounted for 52.1% of the total, and verticality was strongly preferred (M = 2.01). The prevalent use of warm hues and natural materials also suggests a consumer preference for psychological comfort and nature-oriented expression.
Conversely, overseas markets demonstrate a preference for standardized planting strategies, formalized shapes, monochromatic or patterned color unity, and smooth-textured plants arranged in balanced or horizontal structures. These tendencies reflect Western aesthetics, which emphasize harmony between form and color, modern spatial refinement, and visual consistency. Statistically significant differences were observed in plant color diversity (β = −0.249, p < .001) and texture preferences (β = −0.284, p < .001), further underscoring the divergence in design sensibilities.
These findings suggest that the differences in indoor planting design are not merely functional but stem from deeper cultural foundations, psychological preferences, and perceptions of aesthetic form. As such, plant design functions as a medium for visually expressing the psychological and cultural identities of consumers, moving beyond its traditional role as simple interior decoration (Wang and Minor, 2013).
Theoretically, this study contributes to the systematization of planting design research and offers a foundation for cross-cultural comparative studies. Practically, it provides essential data for consumer-driven product planning, region-specific distribution strategies, and the development of new plant varieties. Future research should explore the applicability of planting design across diverse space types—such as public facilities, commercial environments, and cultural complexes—while also integrating user-type segmentation and enhancing AI-based image analysis techniques to increase the practicality and scalability of plant design strategies.
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