Introduction
Flowers are closely connected to the changing seasons (Cang, 2021) and symbolize beauty, offering vitality and psychological comfort to the human spirit, especially in times of emotional desolation, through their vibrant colors, pleasant fragrances, and elegant forms (Kim, 2018). While flowers are commonly used for their ornamental value (Park, 2005), they also serve various purposes such as in culinary applications, decoration, dye production, cake and food embellishment, interior design, and the creation of elaborate floral arrangements (Lee, 2014). Furthermore, engaging with flowers—whether by appreciating or cultivating them—fosters a closer relationship with nature. Research has shown that this interaction can help reduce stress and alleviate symptoms of mental illness, ultimately contributing to a healthier and more fulfilling mental life (Noh, 2013).
Recently, interest in edible flowers has grown (Takahashi et al., 2020). Changes in modern dietary habits have led to various health issues. In response, people are shifting their focus from quantity to quality, embracing a food culture that engages all five senses. In this context, the rising awareness of edible flowers aligns with broader trends that prioritize health and sustainable eating practices, and the demand for their industrialization is increasing beyond mere curiosity (Cang, 2021). Consequently, flowers possessing nutritional and pharmacological properties—along with appealing color, fragrance, texture, and unique flavors —are being recognized as valuable food ingredients that satisfy the five senses of humans (Noh, 2013). Although edible flowers were not widely recognized as food ingredients in the past, interest in them has grown alongside the increasing number of farms dedicated to their cultivation. This trend has led to their incorporation into a variety of dishes—such as flower-topped rice, salads, and bibimbap garnishes—and to their adoption by both general dining establishments and hotel restaurants as distinctive culinary elements (Park, 2005).
Meanwhile, flowers are also utilized as key resources in agro-healing programs. Agro-healing—also known as care farming, social farming, therapeutic horticulture, or healing agriculture—is an industry that generates both social and economic value by utilizing a variety of agricultural and rural resources and activities to support the recovery, maintenance, and enhancement of public health (Article 2 of the Act on Research, Development, and Promotion of Healing Agriculture). In this context, flowers are incorporated into a range of agro-healing activities, including planting, cultivating, and applying them in diverse ways— particularly in food-related experiences such as cake-making, flower tea preparation, and creating flower-based bibimbap. For instance, edible flower tourism farms go beyond simply showcasing flowers; they try to spark visitors’ curiosity and offer new sensory experiences by serving dishes such as flower-topped bibimbap, salads, flower teas, and herb bread in on-site restaurants (Gwon, 2005).
Edible flowers have been consumed widely from long ago and continue to be used today (Prabawati et al., 2021). The characteristics of flowers used for culinary purposes— such as flower size, color, fragrance, and chemical composition— vary depending on their growing conditions. It is well known that phytochemicals in vegetables and fruits grown under strong sunlight help neutralize harmful reactive oxygen species in the body, promoting cell regeneration and playing a role in disease prevention and anti-aging (Lee, 2014; Yoo, 2015). Spring-blooming edible flowers exhibit a high correlation with antioxidant activity, particularly in relation to their contents of vitamin C, flavonoids, and total polyphenols, in that order. In key edible flowers commonly used for flower tea preparations —such as Magnolia denudata and Prunus mume—polyphenols, flavonoids, and catechins have been identified as major antioxidant compounds (Choi, 2017). These edible flowers serve not only as decorative elements in cuisine but also contribute to disease prevention and health promotion through their functional compounds. In recent years, increasing attention has been paid to their health benefits, leading more consumers to choose edible flowers not only for their visual appeal but also for their potential to enhance quality of life (Jang, 2018).
Edible flowers are not merely flowers that can be eaten; they can also serve as culinary ingredients that enhance the color, aroma, and flavor of dishes while adding visual appeal. Although a wide variety of flower species are classified as edible, not all are commonly used in cooking. Some flowers contain toxic compounds that may pose health risks to consumers, making accurate identification of edible species essential (Takahashi et al., 2020). These characteristics highlight the importance of verifying the safety and edibility of flowers prior to their use in food applications.
Based on previous studies on edible flowers, Park (2015) analyzed five domestic publications to identify the species of edible flowers reported in Korean literature. The analysis revealed a total of 381 species belonging to 78 plant families. Among these, 62 species appeared in three or more of the reviewed publications, accounting for 60% of the surveyed literature. A frequency analysis by plant family was conducted for these 62 species. These findings serve as valuable data for the potential use of edible flowers as food ingredients.
However, within agro-healing programs, flowers serve purposes beyond merely functioning as food ingredients. Since agro-healing encompasses the entire process of directly cultivating, managing, harvesting, and utilizing plants, it is necessary to evaluate edible flowers from the perspective of crops used throughout the full cultivation cycle—from sowing to harvest. This implies the need to distinguish between edible flowers imported solely as food ingredients and those cultivated as crops. In other words, edible flowers as agro-healing resources are selected based on two perspectives: their use as food ingredients and their cultivation as crops involving the entire process of growing, harvesting, and utilization. Therefore, among the edible flowers that can be produced domestically, research is needed to assess their suitability for agro-healing applications, with particular emphasis on their edibility and safety.
To this end, we first examined the raw materials with edible flower parts listed in Appendix 1, Raw Materials That Can Be Used in Food, of the Notification of Standards and Specifications for Foods (No. 2024-4, January 24, 2024), recently issued by the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (MFDS). This list includes edible flowers that have been processed into raw materials not suitable for use in agro-healing. Taking this into account, we excluded such processed materials and classified edible flowers that could be used as resources for agro-healing programs, based on factors such as growing conditions, seed distribution, and more.
In this study, we surveyed the scientific names of edible flowers recognized by MFDS (January 24, 2024) and classified them by horticultural category, flowering period, usable part, and flower color, in order to provide foundational data for developing agro-healing programs that utilize edible flowers.
Research Methods
According to Appendix 1, Raw Materials That Can Be Used in Food, from the recently announced Notification of Standards and Specifications for Foods (No. 2024-4, January 24, 2024), a total of 3,672 plant-based raw materials were identified. Among them, 163 were classified as “flowers,” “petals,” or “petals and calyxes” (MFDS, 2024). Meanwhile, agro-healing programs are designed to promote psychological and physical healing through hands-on plant cultivation activities such as watering, weeding, planting, and harvesting (Rural Development Administration, 2024). Of the 163 flower-related raw materials, 62 species —including Alnus viridis var. crispa, Tilia tomentosa, and Gnetum gnemon—are primarily used as food ingredients but are not commonly cultivated or distributed as horticultural plants. These species were deemed unsuitable for use in agro-healing programs and were therefore excluded from the study. As a result, 101 species were ultimately selected as the subjects of this research.
To understand the growth characteristics of these edible flowers, we conducted a literature review using encyclopedias and plant dictionaries based on their scientific names. Based on this, we identified their horticultural classification, flowering period, safely usable parts, and flower colors, and categorized them accordingly to support safer and more effective use in agro-healing programs.
1) Horticultural classification serves as a selection criterion for identifying suitable plant resources by considering factors such as the growth characteristics and planting methods of flowers in agro-healing programs. Accordingly, based on a classification system commonly recognized and used by agro-healing practitioners, the flowers were categorized following general horticultural practices into annuals, perennials, woody flowering plants (shrubs), woody flowering plants (trees), woody flowering plants (climbing plants), and aquatic plants. This can be utilized in developing planting plans, designing participant activities, and more.
2) Flowering periods are closely related to the characteristics of agro-healing programs, which can be conducted year-round. Utilizing edible flowers that bloom during specific seasons not only enhances a sense of seasonality but also promotes emotional stability and seasonal adaptability by enabling participants to experience the cyclical changes of nature. Accordingly, this study categorized flowering periods into spring (March to May), summer (June to August), fall (September to November), and winter (December to February). This classification allows for the selection of appropriate resources aligned with the operational periods of agro-healing programs.
3) The usable parts of edible flowers are a key criterion for ensuring safety and designing experiential activities in agro-healing programs involving their actual use. When implementing such programs—through activities like flower tea preparation, flower bibimbap, or salads —the required parts vary depending on the use, and these differences affect both the appropriate harvesting time and safety during the growth stage. Accordingly, the usable parts were categorized into “flowers,” “petals,” and “petals and calyxes” to support resource selection considering the safety of participants.
4) Flower color is an effective factor in eliciting mood changes through visual stimulation within agro-healing programs. Notably, the psychological effects of color varies according to participants’ age, condition, and therapeutic objectives, making it a critical criterion for resource selection. Takahashi et al. (2020) also suggested that flower color is a critical selection criterion not only for ornamental purposes but also for edible flower applications. Accordingly, this study categorized flower colors into ten groups: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, reddish-purple, pink, white, and mixed hues, taking into account the relationship between visual accessibility and therapeutic efficacy.”
Results and Discussion
Research Results
This study aimed to provide foundational data on the safe use and application of edible flowers that can be used in agro-healing programs. To this end, edible flowers were classified according to horticultural taxonomy, flowering period, usable parts, and flower color.
Horticultural Classification of Edible Flowers
In this study, edible flowers were horticulturally classified into six categories: annuals, perennials, woody flowering plants (shrubs), woody flowering plants (trees), woody flowering plants (climbing plants), and aquatic plants. The horticultural classification of edible flowers is as follows: 16 species of annuals (15.8%), including Calendula arvensis L., Eruca sativa Mill., and Celosia cristata L.; 30 species of perennials (29.7%), including Antirrhinum majus L., Malva sylvestris L., and Althaea officinalis; 23 species of flowering shrubs (22.8%), including Osmanthus fragrans Lour., Hibiscus syriacus L., and Sambucus nigra L.; 29 species of flowering trees (28.7%), including Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck, Camellia japonica L., and Prunus mume (Siebold) Siebold and Zucc.; 2 species of flowering climbing plants (2.0%), including Rosa multiflora Thunb. and Wisteria floribunda (Willd.) DC.; and 1 species of aquatic plant (1.0%), Nelumbo nucifera Gaertner (Fig. 1 and Table 1).
Classification of Edible Flowers by Flowering Period
In this study, the flowering periods of 101 edible flower species were classified into four seasonal groups: March to May (spring), June to August (summer), September to November (fall), and December to February (winter). However, species with flowering periods spanning two seasons were included in multiple categories. As a result, a total of 158 instances (n = 158) were analyzed for frequency. The classification by flowering period is as follows: 41 species (26.0%) bloom in spring (March to May), including Camellia japonica L., Runus mume (Siebold) Siebold and Zucc., and Chimonanthus praecox (L.) Link; 75 species (47.5%) in summer (June to August), including Taraxacum laevigatum DC., Antirrhinum majus L., and Caragana sinica (Buc’hoz) Rehder; 35 species (22.2%) in fall (September to November), including Camellia sinensis L., Abelmoschus esculentus (L.), and Malva sylvestris L.; and 7 species (4.5%) in winter (December to February), including Camellia japonica L., Acacia retinodes Schltdl., and Acacia melanoxylon R.Br (Fig. 2 and Table 1).
Classification of Edible Flowers by Usable Part
In this study, the usable parts of edible flowers were categorized into three groups: “flowers,” “petals”, and “petals and calyxes.” The classification of edible flowers by usable part is as follows: 84 species (83.2%) for which the entire flower is used, including Caragana sinica (Buc’hoz) Rehder, Acacia pycnantha, and Antirrhinum majus L.; 16 species (15.8%) for which only the petals are used, incluidng Paeonia suffruticosa Andr., Magnolia denudata Desr., and Magnolia virginiana L.; and 1 species (1.0%), Hibiscus sabdariffa L. for which both petals and calyxes are used (Fig. 3 and Table 1).
In the case of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. examined in this study, the petals and calyxes are edible, while the stamens and pistils are excluded due to concerns related to allergens and safety. In contrast, for Nelumbo nucifera Gaertner, the stamen is considered the primary medicinal component, and therefore the flower, including the stamen, is used.
Classification of Edible Flowers by Color
In this study, 101 species of edible flowers were classified into 10 color categories: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, reddish-purple, pink, white, and mixed hues. Since some flowers exhibited multiple colors, they were assigned to more than one category, resulting in a total of 160 instances analyzed for frequency. The classification by color category is as follows:
Red: 21 species (13.1%), including Tilia × europea L., Tagetes erecta L., and Tagetes patula L.;
Orange: 6 species (3.8%), including Calendula officinalis L., Pelargonium spp., and Tagetes patula L.;
Yellow: 43 species (26.9%), including Acacia pycnantha, Acacia retinodes Schltdl., and Celosia cristata L.;
Green: 3 species (1.9%), including Artemisia dracunculus L., Humulus lupulus L., and Tilia cordata (Mill.) Maxim.;
Blue: 2 species (1.2%), including Hibiscus syriacus L. and Myosotis alpestris F.W. Schmid;
Purple: 8 species (5.0%), including Borago officinalis L., Dianthus caryophyllus L., and Hyssopus officinalis L.;
Reddish-purple: 11 species (6.9%), including Allium chinense, Althaea officinalis, and Centaurea cyanus L.;
Pink: 17 species (10.6%), including Albizzia julibrissin Durazz., Camellia sinensis L., and Cercis canadensis L.;
White: 48 species (30.0%), including Antirrhinum majus L., Camellia sinensis L., and Celosia cristata L.; and
Mixed hues, 1 species (0.6%), Dianthus caryophyllus L (Fig. 4 and Table 1).
Discussion
In this study, the growth characteristics, seasonal flowering periods, flower colors, and usable parts of edible flowers were analyzed to assess their potential as resources for agro-healing programs. cThe survey results indicated that, among the edible flowers registered with MFDS, perennial species accounted for the largest proportion. The flowering period was predominantly concentrated between June and August. Furthermore, the most commonly utilized part was the entire flower, and white was identified as the most frequent flower color.
Horticultural classification of edible flowers
Edible flowers include herbaceous annuals, biennials and perennials, as well as the blossoms of evergreen and deciduous trees (Oh, 2003). This aligns with the horticultural classification of edible flowers presented in this study. This horticultural classification reflects the growth characteristics of edible flowers and may serve as a useful criterion for selecting plant resources in agro-healing programs.
Classification of Edible Flowers by Flowering Period
Since agro-healing programs can be implemented year-round, the flowering periods of edible flowers serve as an important reference for selecting appropriate plant resources. According to Gwon (2005), Farm C, located in Gyeonggi-do, faced difficulties in temperature regulation during winter, resulting in an uncertain harvest timing and a limited supply of edible flowers during that period. As of 2005, approximately 20 species of edible flowers were cultivated in South Korea. Among them, Tropaeolum majus, Viola tricolor, Primula spp., and Bellis perennis were highly favored by consumers depending on the season and were primarily grown in plastic greenhouses. However, due to high heating costs, winter production showed a marked decline. This indicates that edible flowers are highly sensitive to seasonal changes, even under artificially controlled conditions, highlighting a contrast with the year-round operational nature of agro-healing programs.
Meanwhile, four species of edible flowers that can be cultivated during winter were suggested: Calendula officinalis, Begonia spp., Viola × wittrockiana, and Tropaeolum majus (Gwon, 2005). In this study, a recent survey of plant-based raw materials listed in Appendix 1 of the Raw Materials That Can Be Used in Food, published as part of the Notification of Standards and Specifications for Foods (No. 2024-4, January 24, 2024) announced by MFDS, identified seven species of edible flowers that bloom in winter (December to February): Acacia melanoxylon R.Br., Acacia pycnantha, Acacia retinodes Schltdl., Camellia japonica L., Jasminum sambac, Pelargonium spp., and Prunus mume (Siebold) Siebold and Zucc.. This indicates that a greater variety of edible flowers may bloom in winter than previously reported, suggesting expanded potential for incorporating winter-blooming species into future agro-healing programs. Furthermore, technical research aimed at achieving greater seasonal diversity among edible flower species is likely to become increasingly important. Therefore, the flowering period is a key factor in evaluating the suitability of edible flowers as resources for agro-healing applications.
Classification of Edible Flowers by Usable Part
The safety of edible flowers is a critical consideration. In some species, the entire flower is edible, while in others, only specific parts—such as the petals—can be safely consumed. Therefore, it is essential to accurately identify the edible parts of each species, exercise care in the preparation and cooking process, and ensure safe consumption (Creasy, 1999; Lim and Kim, 2010; Park, 2015).
Studies have reported that, with the exception of Viola tricolor, Viola mandshurica, Viola × wittrockiana, Lonicera japonica, and Trifolium repens, edible flower species should be consumed only after the calyx has been removed. Furthermore, only the petals of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat., Calendula arvensis L., Lavandula angustifolia, Rosa spp., and Tulipa gesneriana are considered edible (Barash, 1997; Park, 2015). However, according to the most recent update to the Notification of Standards and Specifications for Foods (No. 2024-4, January 24, 2024) issued by MFDS, Viola tricolor L., Viola mandshurica, and Viola × wittrockiana are included in the list of Raw Materials That Can Be Used in Food (Appendix 1). In contrast, Lonicera japonica and Trifolium repens are not included. The use of Rosa spp. is limited to the “petals,” while Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. and Calendula arvensis L. can be used in their entirety as “whole flowers.” Lavandula angustifolia Mill. is approved for use in “whole flowers” as well as other parts. Notably, Tulipa gesneriana is not included in the list.
As such, while some edible flowers have been reported as suitable for consumption in previous literature, perceptions of food safety and regulatory standards may differ depending on the country and time period. For this reason, this study categorized the usable parts based on the latest Korean standards, specifically the list of Raw Materials That Can Be Used in Food; therefore, discrepancies may exist between these parts and those officially approved for use as food ingredients.
Meanwhile, certain structures of edible flowers—such as stems, calyxes, pistils, and stamens—are generally not considered edible, and components like pollen should be removed prior to consumption due to their potential to cause allergic reactions (Takahashi et al., 2020). Therefore, when implementing agro-healing programs that utilize edible flowers as therapeutic resources, it is recommended to use only the parts suggested by MFDS to ensure the highest level of safety. Furthermore, attention should be given not only to the parts used but also to the safety of the cultivation process.
Classification of Edible Flowers by Color
Agro-healing programs that incorporate edible flowers can be designed to serve multiple functional purposes beyond simple gardening activities. These include promoting healthier eating habits, stimulating the five senses, and supporting emotional regulation. Childhood experiences with gardening have been shown to increase fruit and vegetable intake by more than 40%, contributing to the prevention of obesity and related diseases. By engaging in the cultivation and harvesting of colorful edible flowers, individuals can develop a greater interest in food, thereby enhancing the educational benefits and naturally encouraging higher consumption of fruits and vegetables (Lineberger and Zajic, 2000; Son, 2012).
Older adults are generally able to distinguish bright and warm colors well. Selecting flowers with vivid colors can meet their visual perception needs and encourage outdoor activity, thereby enhancing visual perception. Accordingly, the methods of utilizing edible flowers may vary depending on participants’ age, health status, and therapeutic objectives. Therefore, agro-healing programs should be designed to reflect these individual characteristics.
Humans perceive objects through the five senses—sight (vision), hearing (audition), smell (olfaction), taste (gustation), and touch (tactile sense)—with vision accounting for approximately 70% of sensory input. This indicates that color constitutes the largest proportion of the information we perceive about objects (Kang, 2010). In general, warm colors are known to stimulate appetite. According to a study by Faber-Berren (1985), red enhances appetite, while orange has an even stronger stimulating effect. Appetite gradually decreases with yellow, is barely stimulated by light green, and slightly recovers with green, but declines again with blue (Chae, 2002). These findings are consistent with the results of Noh (2013), who analyzed color preferences for edible flower decorations based on gender, age, education level, occupation, income, and marital status. The study found that blue was not preferred at all, whereas red, orange, yellow, and green were generally favored. This study’s classification of edible flowers by color also revealed a high proportion of red-toned flowers, which appears to correspond with colors known to stimulate appetite.
Psychologist Faber-Berren (1985) reported that children are attracted to vivid colors such as yellow, white, pink, red, purple, orange, blue, and green. In South Korea, children’s color preferences were generally found to follow the order of blue, red, green, orange, and purple (Kim, 1985; Son, 2012). Moreover, previous studies have shown cases where colorful foods were cultivated, harvested, and incorporated into cooking activities (Kim, 2011). Therefore, the findings of this study are expected to be useful for applying a color-based approach to edible flowers in the design of agro-healing programs, according to the therapeutic objectives and characteristics of the participants.
Conclusion
To facilitate the direct cultivation and use of edible flowers approved by the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (MFDS) in agro-healing programs, this study conducted a literature review using encyclopedias and plant dictionaries based on scientific names. The review identified the horticultural classifications, flowering periods, safely usable parts, and colors of these flowers, offering insights into their growth characteristics. The findings were categorized to support their safer and more effective application in such programs.
From the list of Raw Materials That Can Be Used in Food registered with MFDS, 101 species suitable for use as agro-healing resources were examined. As a result, the horticultural classification of these 101 edible flowers is as follows: 16 species (15.8%) of annuals, 30 species (29.7%) of perennials, 23 species (22.8%) of woody flowering plants (shrubs), 29 species (28.7%) of woody flowering plants (trees), 2 species (2.0%) of woody flowering plants (climbing plants), and 1 species (1.0%) of aquatic plant. Among these, perennials accounted for the highest proportion. Their flowering periods were categorized into four seasonal groups: 41 species (26.0%) bloom in spring (March to May), 75 species (47.5%) in summer (June to August), 35 species (22.2%) in fall (September to November), and 7 species (4.5%) in winter (December to February). The majority of species bloom in summer, indicating a seasonal concentration during this period. Moreover, they were categorized by usable part into three groups: 84 species (83.2%) that use the whole “flower”; 16 species (15.8%) that use only the “petals”; and 1 species (1.0%) that uses “both petals and calyxes.” This indicates that the whole flower is most commonly used. They were also categorized by color into ten categories: red (21 species, 13.1%), orange (6 species, 3.8%), yellow (43 species, 26.9%), green (3 species, 1.9%), blue (2 species, 1.2%), purple (8 species, 5.0%), reddish-purple (11 species, 6.9%), pink (17 species, 10.6%), white (48 species, 30.0%), and mixed hues (1 species, 0.6%), with white being the most prevalent.
In agro-healing programs that encompass the entire process of growing, caring for, harvesting, and utilizing plants, edible flowers should be approached as crops that are involved throughout the full cultivation cycle—from sowing to harvest. Based on the findings of this study, further research is expected to explore the potential of edible flowers as agro-healing resources by developing programs that take into account their growth characteristics, safety for consumption, color, and functional effects, as well as by analyzing their overall impact.
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