Introduction
Research Background and Purpose
The spatial composition of traditional Korean houses was characterized by a strict separation of residential buildings within a household according to their users, reflecting an intentional division of areas based on political and social conventions, as well as Neo-Confucian norms such as the principle of nam-nyeo-yu-byeol (the rule of Confucianism that men and women should be separated) and status distinctions rooted in the nae-oe-beop, both of which emphasized separations based on gender and social hierarchy. In addition to the separation of residential buildings within a household in accordance with Neo-Confucian norms, nae-oe-dam—walls or fences constructed within traditional Koran houses—were built to obstruct visibility from outsiders or visitors, divide spaces, direct movement, and screen private facilities (e.g., standalone toilet facilities such as the cheukgan) in everyday living areas in accordance with the nae-oe-beop. Such nae-oe-dam structures were commonly installed in areas such as the sarang-madang, an-madang, haengnang-madang, and backyards (Han and Lim, 2024). As the influence of nae-oe-beop grew stronger during the late Joseon Dynasty, the height of nae-oe-dam increased, and their presence became more common in residential architecture. Even within such nae-oe-dam structures, landscaping features like hwa-o (small earthen flower beds built against walls) were installed in areas such as sarang-madang (men’s quarters courtyard). This study referred to the form in which flower beds were created adjoining nae-oe-dam as “nae-oe-dam flower beds” and focused on this spatial composition. In a previous study on the landscape characteristics of nae-oe-dam in Gyeongsangnam-do, we observed that flower beds were often installed adjoining nae-oe-dam. Based on this finding, we conducted a full-scale investigation focusing on this feature in traditional houses in Gyeongsangbuk-do. During the preliminary survey, we found that while some nae-oe-dam flower beds were well preserved and retained their traditional characteristics, others had lost their original form. In addition, the plants within these flower beds, due to their finite life spans, were subject to change, relocation, or even disappearance as a result of natural disasters. Given these dynamics, there is a growing need to study the original form and function of nae-oe-dam flower beds, which now survive as landscape elements in traditional gardens. Therefore, this study aims to provide foundational data and identify landscape characteristics by analyzing the functions, forms, and vegetation of nae-oe-dam flower beds—a subject that has not yet been addressed in academic literature.
Related research trends
Numerous studies have explored hwagye and hwa-o, which are types of flower beds found in traditional Korean spaces. Baek (1998), for example, analyzed the structure and spatial components of hwagye in various palace gardens. By examining these tiered flower beds, the study identified the distinct structural characteristics of hwagye in different spatial contexts. Kim (2014), through a review of literature and paintings, reported that during the Joseon Dynasty, flowering plants were primarily cultivated in flower beds, hwa-gye, hwa-o, ponds, and around fences in private residences. Lim and Lim and So (2014) suggested that the main venues for banquets in traditional Korean houses were the sarang-madang and back gardens. They also noted that flower pots were typically used only in these spaces, and in some cases, hwa-o contained only flower pots or gwae-seok-bun (decorative trays featuring viewing stones), without any planted vegetation. Kim (2019) compared and analyzed traditional hwagye created in modern times with those from the Joseon Dynasty to examine the evolving aspects of traditional garden hwagye, principles of spatial composition, and plant characteristics. Bae et al. (2021), in a study on unregistered private gardens, found that hwagye located in the backyard of an-chae (women’s quarters) were designed as a method for slope stabilization. Meanwhile, Han and Lim (2024) explored the landscape characteristics and value of nae-oe-dam in traditional houses through a case study in Gyeongsangnam-do. Although some studies have addressed nae-oe-dam, none have specifically focused on the landscape value of nae-oe-dam flower beds.
Research Methods
The temporal scope of this study spans from the late Joseon Dynasty—when the nae-oe-beop (a Confucian principle advocating the separation of men and women) became more rigid—to the period prior to Korea’s liberation from Japanese colonial rule, during which Joseonera customs largely persisted. This timeframe also corresponds to the period when nae-oe-dam were most commonly installed in traditional houses.
The spatial scope of the study was limited to traditional houses located in Gyeongsangbuk-do. The process for selecting and analyzing the research subjects is as follows. First, designated cultural heritage sites were identified and classified using data from the National Heritage Service website. A total of 304 traditional Korean houses were extracted, comprising 14 Treasures, 72 National Folklore Cultural Heritages, and 218 City/Province-level cultural properties, including Tangible Cultural Heritages, Monuments, Folklore Cultural Heritages, and Cultural Heritage Materials. On-site investigations were conducted for all 304 houses, revealing that approximately 50 featured nae-oe-dam structures. Among these, 15 houses had flower beds installed adjacent to the nae-oe-dam. Additionally, five more houses with nae-oe-dam flower beds were identified during a field survey of nearby non-designated traditional houses located within the same villages. As a result, a total of 20 houses out of 309 were selected as the final subjects for this study (Fig. 1). The research sites included four locations in Gyeongju-si, four in Daegu Metropolitan City, one in Sangjusi, five in Yeongdeok-gun, two in Yecheon-gun, one in Uiseong-gun, two in Cheongdo-gun, and one in Cheongsonggun. The official names of the traditional houses followed the naming conventions of the National Heritage Service. For non-designated houses, names were assigned by appending the owner’s full name to the word “house” in order to distinguish them from designated properties. The list of nae-oe-dam flower beds in traditional houses across Gyeongsangbuk-do was organized according to the Korean alphabetical order of the regional names (Table 1). Second, the field surveys were conducted in four phases: the first from March 1 to June 25, 2023; the second from October 7 to November 30, 2023; the third from January 7 to July 28, 2024; and the fourth from October 5, 2024 to February 20, 2025. Third, the location, form/shape, and materials of the nae-oe-dam flower beds were investigated and measured during these surveys. Additionally, the plant species, associated facilities, and landscape elements were documented through photographs and drawings created using AutoCAD. Fourth, interviews were conducted in person or by phone with the descendants of the traditional house owners to gather information on the construction period of the nae-oe-dam flower beds and other relevant historical details, which were incorporated into the research. Based on the field survey data, the location, function, form, and flora (plant composition) of the nae-oe-dam flower beds were analyzed. Furthermore, by referencing related studies and literature, the characteristics of nae-oe-dam flower beds found in traditional houses of Gyeongsangbuk-do were identified.
Results and Discussion
Function of Nae-oe-dam Flower Bed
Flower beds along/adjacent to nae-oe-dam share a similar concept with hwa-o. Hwa-o refers to a planting platform typically arranged along the edge of a yard or beneath the fence in traditional gardens. It is a type of landscape feature, and depending on the plant species used, it was given specific names such as Mae-o (hwa-o planted with Prunus mume), Do-o (planted with Prunus persica), and Juk-o (planted with bamboo species, Bambusoideae; Kim, 2012). Although nae-oe-dam flower beds are also landscape features within traditional spaces, this study used the term “hwadan” to refer specifically to the planting platforms installed in nae-oe-dam, in order to distinguish them from hwa-o. These hwadan were installed in various locations such as the sarang-madang (men’s quarters courtyard), an-madang (women’s quarters courtyard), haengnang-madang (servants’ courtyard), and backyards, and their functions vary depending on their placement (Table 2). The location where nae-oe-dam flower beds (hereinafter referred to as nae-oe-dam hwadan) were most frequently installed was the sarang- madang, with installations observed in 13 houses. Additionally, nae-oe-dam hwadan were found in 6 an-madang, 2 haengnang-madang, and 1 backyard. At Cheongsong Songso Old House, nae-oe-dam hwadan were installed in the sarang-madang, haengnang-madang, and backyard, respectively. In this particular case, while nae-oe-dam structures were present near the shrine and in the nae-cheuk (a restroom annex built near the an-chae for the exclusive use of its residents), no nae-oe-dam hwadan were created in those locations. This absence appears to reflect the limited need for visual screening in the innermost areas of the house—spaces where outsider access was restricted—and thus the function of blocking the view was not supplemented by planting trees or establishing flower beds.
Nae-oe-dam hwadan have been installed in the sarang- madang (men’s quarters courtyard) of 13 traditional residences: Choi Kyung House in Gyeongju; Gwanggeodang in Dalseong; Uiam Old House in Sangju; Gyeongsudang’s House in Yeongdeok; Mulsowa Old House in Goesi-dong, Yeongdeok; Mangoeheon in Yeongdeok; Jijokdang in Yeongdeok; Yongam Jongtaek in Inyang-ri, Yeongdeok; Lee Bun-soon House in Yecheon; Ungokdang in Uiseong; Seonam Seowon Confucian Academy in Cheongdo; Takyeong Jongtaek in Cheongdo; and Songso Old House in Cheongsong (Table 2, items ②, ⑤, ⑨, ⑩, ⑪, ⑫, ⑬, ⑭, ⑯, ⑰, ⑱, ⑲ and ⑳). A variety of trees, vines, shrubs, and herbaceous plants are cultivated in the nae-oe-dam hwadan within the sarang-madang, with a notable preference for tree species. Notably, Uiam Old House (Sangju), Mulsowa Old House (Goesi-dong, Yeongdeok), and Lee Bun-soon House (Yecheon) are among the houses planted with tree species, including Diospyros kaki (persimmon) and Lagerstroemia indica (crape myrtle). These sites share the common feature of having wells located beyond the nae-oe-dam. This suggests a deliberate intent to prevent women drawing water from the wells from making eye contact with men in the sarang-madang. To reinforce this visual barrier, tall tree species that grow higher than the nae-oe-dam were strategically planted. Furthermore, the use of trees with ornamental characteristics— such as attractive fruits, vibrant autumn foliage, or extended blooming periods—not only enhanced privacy but also enriched the overall landscape aesthetics.
The climbing plant Campsis grandiflora has been planted at Choi Kyung House (Gyeongju), Uiam Old House (Sangju), and Jijokdang (Yeongdeok). Due to its growth habit of clinging to walls, it occupies minimal space in the hwadan (flower beds), yet it creates a striking summer landscape by fully covering the roof of the nae-oe-dam, thereby enhancing privacy by visually blocking the view. At Choi Kyung House, however, the nae-oe-dam was destroyed by a typhoon several years ago, and the Campsis grandiflora now grows along the ground, having lost its vertical support (For reference: pre-destruction images of the nae-oe-dam; https://blog.naver.com/h970223/90053432306). As Choi Kyung House is not a designated cultural heritage site, the nae-oe-dam has not been restored. At Songso Old House (Cheongsong), nae-oe-dam hwadan were constructed on both sides of the wall. The sarang-chae (men’s quarters) area was designed with an emphasis on aesthetic landscaping, incorporating trees and herbaceous plants. Meanwhile, behind the nae-oe-dam, a row of Buxus koreana (Korean boxwood) has been planted to delineate the path leading to the middle gate (jungmun) that connects to the an-chae (women’s quarters).
The nae-oe-dam hwadan have been installed in the an-madang (women’s quarters courtyard) at six locations: Jusa’s House (Wolseong, Gyeongju), Choi Sang-soon House (Gyeongju), Choi Joo-yeol House (Gyeongju), and the houses of Moon Hee-gap, Moon Hee-mok, and Moon Hee-ji (all located in Dalseong; Table 2, items ①, ③, ④, ⑥, ⑦, and ⑧). At Jusa’s House (Wolseong, Gyeongju), the nae-oe-dam hwadan was designed as part of the landscape, forming an ㄱ-shaped flower bed facing the main gate and planted with shrubs to enhance the view. In the case of Choi Joo-yeol’s House in Gyeongju, the nae-oe-dam was destroyed by a typhoon several years ago, and currently, only a symbolic structure remains—roughly assembled with roof tiles in an improvised manner. Historically, the nae-oe-dam at this site was a 1.6-meter-high toseok-dam (a traditional Korean wall built from compacted earth and stacked stones). Campsis grandiflora had been planted on the hwadan, its vigorous growth covering the roof of the nae-oe-dam and effectively concealing the eaves of the an-chae (women’s quarters; Kim, 1997).
Nae-oe-dam were also installed in the an-madang of the Moon Hee-gap House, Moon Hee-mok House, and Moon Hee-ji House in Dalseong, as well as the Choi Sang-soon House in Gyeongju, all of which were constructed during the Japanese colonial period. This indicates that the custom of the nae-oe-beop was maintained even amid the process of modernization. During this time, tree species such as Camellia japonica, Prunus mume, and Diospyros kaki were introduced into the nae-oe-dam hwadan located in the an-madang of traditional houses. Given the traditional practice of avoiding the planting of tall trees in the an-madang, this reflects a shift in landscaping approaches during the modern period. In the nae-oe-dam hwadan of these houses, various tree species have been introduced and used as gardens, based on the preferences of their descendants.
There are two cases where nae-oe-dam hwadan were installed in the haengrang-madang (yard of the servants’ quarters): the Park Gye-sang House in Yecheon and the Songso Old House in Cheongsong (Table 2, items ⑮ and ⑳). In these houses, trees taller than the nae-oe-dam were planted within the hwadan to obstruct the view of the cheukgan (standalone toilet facilities) from the sarang- chae, while also taking the overall aesthetics from the sarang-chae into consideration. In the backyard areas, only one instance of a nae-oe-dam hwadan has been identified— at Songso Old House in Cheongsong (Table 2, item ⑳). There, the nae-oe-dam was installed and planted with vegetation to screen the view toward the an-chae, thereby maintaining visual privacy.
The installation rate of nae-oe-dam hwadan was highest in the sarang-madang, a space typically situated in an open area where visual screening is particularly necessary. The primary functions of nae-oe-dam hwadan in the sarang-madang were to block undesirable views, enhance the aesthetics of the landscape, and guide circulation toward the middle gate (jungmun). In the an-madang, nae-oe-dam hwadan similarly served to block views, while incorporating flower beds and ornamental plantings, such as hwa-o found in the sarang-madang, thereby fulfilling a garden function. Notably, even tall trees were planted in the an-madang, diverging from the planting patterns typical of traditional gardens. In the haengrang-madang and backyards, nae-oe-dam hwadan were installed with the primary purpose of strengthening the visual shielding of auxiliary facilities and obstructing visual intrusion.
Forms and Sizes of Nae-oe-dam Hwadan
Forms of nae-oe-dam hwadan
The design of nae-oe-dam hwadan closely reflected the shape of the nae-oe-dam, which were constructed to match the structural layout of the houses. Two main types of nae-oe-dam hwadan were identified: the “one-sided type,” installed on only one side of the nae-oe-dam, and the “double-sided type,” installed on both sides (Table 3). Each type was found at 11 sites, indicating an equal distribution between single-sided and double-sided installations.
Among the types of hwadan, the “one-sided” Type ⓐ (Table 3-ⓐ ) had the highest frequency of installation, appearing at six of the surveyed sites. This prevalence can be attributed to the widespread use of the “ㅡ-shaped” nae-oe-dam, which made it relatively easy to install flower beds that mirrored the shape of the wall. “One-sided” hwadan were typically installed as either straight, rectangular beds or curved, semicircular ones, placed along the inner or outer sides of the nae-oe-dam. In cases where the hwadan served to enhance visual screening, taller plant species such as trees and climbing vines—exceeding the height of the nae-oe-dam—were planted. Conversely, hwadan intended for ornamental landscaping were usually planted with shrubs and herbaceous species arranged beneath trees.
Among the “double-sided” hwadan, which were installed on both sides of the nae-oe-dam, the most frequently observed types were Type ⓖ and Type ⓙ (Table 3-ⓖ, 3-ⓙ), each found at three sites. The remaining types were irregular, appearing only once or twice across the surveyed sites. At the sarang-madang (men’s quarters courtyard) of the Songso Old House in Cheongsong, a hwadan was installed along both the inner and outer sides of a curved ㄱ-shaped nae-oe-dam This layout not only concealed the an-chae (women’s quarters) and sarang-chae (men’s quarters) visible from the main gate, but also contributed to the overall aesthetics of the courtyard landscape.” (Table 3-ⓚ). At Yongam Jongtaek in Yeongdeok, a distinctive nae-oe-dam was formed by combining a “ㄱ-shaped” wall with a straight extension (“ㅡ-shaped”). The associated hwadan was installed along the front of the “ㄱ-shaped” section (Table 3-ⓛ). This configuration appears to have been intended to block direct lines of sight between the sarang-chae and the sadang (ancestral shrine), which is situated in front of the sarang-chae. As the structure also faces the main gate, additional screening was achieved by planting tall trees and herbaceous species in front of the nae-oe-dam, resulting in the current form of the hwadan. In general, “double-sided” hwadan were often designed with one side planted with tall trees to provide visual screening, while the opposite side featured ornamental plants selected for their landscape appeal, effectively allowing the space to function as a garden.
The boundaries of both “one-sided” and “double-sided” hwadan were typically marked by natural stones. In some cases, they lacked formal boundaries and were instead delineated by ground cover plants on the natural soil, or occasionally by traditional Korean roof tiles.
According to the Bokgeo chapter of Sallim Gyeongje, the traditional hwa-o in Korean houses took the form of an elongated flower bed constructed by stacking long stones approximately two tiers high. These were primarily placed along the side of the sarang-madang, but by the late 17th century, they began to appear in the front as well (Kang and Shin, 2005). Based on this, it is assumed that traditional hwa-o were structurally and functionally similar to modern flower beds (Kim, 2012). Most houses with nae-oe-dam hwadan featured hwa-o in the sarang-madang, or were characterized by the planting of numerous trees in spaces such as the haengnang-madang and sadang-madang, reflecting a deliberate effort to cultivate gardens. From this perspective, nae-oe-dam hwadan also functioned as integral components of the garden, harmonizing with the surrounding hwa-o in terms of landscape composition. Additionally, irregularly shaped “double-sided” hwadan were sometimes constructed around nae-oe-dam, or built in varying forms on both sides, diverging from the traditional forms of traditional hwa-o. Since the shape of a nae-oe-dam was determined by the objects and locations that required visual obstruction, the unique configurations of these hwadan appear to have been affected accordingly. These distinctive forms exemplify notable landscape features, characterized by their irregular shapes, in traditional Korean gardens. The forms of nae-oe-dam hwadan suggested are based on a comprehensive analysis of various factors—such as descendants’ testimonies, planting areas, and vegetation characteristics—and may have undergone partial changes over time.
Sizes of nae-oe-dam hwadan
Nae-oe-dam hwadan were found in a variety of sizes, ranging from 1.2 m2 to 77.2 m2 (Table 2). Small hwadan (≤ 20 m2) were the most common, observed at 15 sites. Medium-sized hwadan (20–30 m2) were identified at 3 sites, while large hwadan (40–70 m2) were present at 2 sites. The smallest hwadan, measuring 1.2 m2, was located at the Choi Kyung House in Gyeongju, while the largest, at 77.2 m2, was found at Songso Old House in Cheongsong. At Songso Old House, nae-oe-dam hwadan were installed in three separate locations, resulting in a total hwadan area that was even larger. The size of each hwadan refers only to the currently planted area.
At Choi Kyung House in Gyeongju, the entire front area of the spacious sarang-madang is used as a garden. However, the hwadan built in front of the nae-oe-dam, located directly in front of the jungmun (middle gate) that connects to the an-chae, was created in a very small size of just 1.2m2. This flower bed was planted with Campsis grandiflora, a vine plant well suited for the purpose of completely covering the roof of the nae-oe-dam to enhance visual privacy. It demonstrates that even a single vine or two can thrive in a limited space while still producing abundant blooms over an extended period. At Mangoeheon in Yeongdeok, a similarly small hwadan measuring 1.8 m2 was installed within the nae-oe-dam positioned directly in front of the jungmun. This bed was planted with herbaceous species that require minimal space. These hwadan, planted with either vines or herbaceous plants, were designed with the understanding that such species can grow well even when planted in close proximity to the nae-oe-dam.
On the other hand, in houses where trees were planted, the roots were placed at a certain distance from the structure to prevent damage to the foundation of the nae-oe-dam. As a result, the nae-oe-dam hwadan were made larger in size. The appropriate width of the hwadan appears to have been determined by taking into account the growth requirements of the trees. Another condition that determined the size of the nae-oe-dam hwadan was the length of the nae-oe-dam itself. In all 20 examined sites, the flower beds were constructed in proportion to the length of the nae-oe-dam—the longer the nae-oe-dam, the larger the area of the hwadan. For instance, the nae-oe-dam lengths at Takyeong Jongtaek and Songso Old House, both located in the sarang-madang, measured 8 m and 9.7 m, respectively, and each was accompanied by a large hwadan. It appears that the area of the hwadan naturally expanded in order to maintain visual proportionality within the landscape, as the width increased to suit the length.
Vegetation of Nae-oe-dam Hwadan
Flora
A recent survey of vegetation in the nae-oe-dam hwadan identified a total of 58 plant species belonging to 34 families. These included 16 tree species, 17 shrub species, and 25 herbaceous species (Table 4). More specifically, the composition consisted of 6 species of evergreen trees, 10 species of deciduous trees, 4 species of evergreen shrubs, 13 species of deciduous shrubs, 3 species of evergreen herbaceous plants, and 22 species of herbaceous perennials, with deciduous trees representing the dominant group. Of the total identified species, 38 were native to the region, while 19 were non-native, indicating that native plants accounted for approximately twice the number of foreign species. The most frequently planted species was Campsis grandiflora, observed in six locations. This was followed by Lagerstroemia indica in three locations, and Diospyros kaki, Prunus mume, and Camellia japonica, each found in two locations.
A total of 27 plant species were identified in the nae-oe-dam hwadan located within sarang-madang, including Diospyros kaki, Lagerstroemia indica, Pseudocydonia sinensis, and Campsis grandiflora. Among these, Lagerstroemia indica, Diospyros kaki, and Campsis grandiflora were the most frequently planted species. These trees are relatively old and are presumed to have been planted at the time of the gardens’ original establishment. The most frequently planted species in the nae-oe-dam hwadan within an-madang was Campsis grandiflora. In addition, a total of 40 species, including Camellia japonica, Prunus mume, and Ziziphus jujuba Mill., were also planted. A diverse range of plant species was observed in the nae-oe-dam hwadan of the an-madang areas at sites such as the Choi Sang-soon House in Gyeongju, the Moon Hee-mok House in Dalseong, and the Yongam Jongtaek in Yeongdeok. Due to the operation of these houses as lodging facilities, a variety of tree species—including non-native species—were introduced. The foreign species identified include Nandina domestica, Rhododendron indicum, Rosa hybrida, Gaura lindheimeri, Phlox subulata, Leucanthemum × superbum, Hydrangea macrophylla, Erigeron karvinskianus, Eupatorium tripartitum, and Helleborus niger. These species contribute to the creation of vibrant and ornamental gardens, blending harmoniously with the existing native vegetation against the backdrop of the nae-oe-dam landscape. A total of nine plant species were identified in haengrang-madang, including Juniperus chinensis, Paeonia suffruticosa, Hemerocallis fulva, and Hydrangea macrophylla. At Songso Old House, where an unusually large number of herbaceous plants were found, it is presumed that various additional species were planted in the haengrang-madang, as the site was recently used as a filming location for a television drama. In addition, Rhododendron mucronulatum, a native species, was previously planted in the nae-oe-dam hwadan of the sarang-madang, but was destroyed by a typhoon several years ago. It has since been replaced with Pinus densiflora f. multicaulis.
A total of 14 tree species were commonly planted in the nae-oe-dam hwadan of both the sarang-madang and an-madang: Diospyros kaki, Prunus mume, Cornus officinalis, Pinus densiflora, Campsis grandiflora, Punica granatum, Jasminum nudiflorum, Buxus koreana, Parthenocissus tricuspidata, Liriope muscari, Hydrangea macrophylla, Hemerocallis fulva, Tradescantia ohiensis, and Paeonia lactiflora. Of these, 11 species—excluding Jasminum nudiflorum, Hydrangea macrophylla, and Tradescantia ohiensis—are native to the region and have traditionally been used in Korean gardens. These indigenous species are still commonly found in those nae-oe-dam hwadan today.
Trees introduced to the hwa-o areas of traditional Korean houses were planted according to specific orientations and imbued with meanings related to feng shui and symbolism. In contrast, plantings in nae-oe-dam hwadan prioritized visual screening functions, followed by aesthetic landscape considerations. The species used in these flower beds were primarily native plants, with trees and vines selected to effectively fulfill the purpose of blocking views. Campsis grandiflora, also known in Korean as Geumdeunghwa, was the most commonly planted species in nae-oe-dam hwadan. However, according to Kim’s (2010) study on the Ground-Cover Plants of the Joseon Dynasty Period: Focusing on the Analysis of the Ancient Paintings and Literatures, Campsis grandiflora is mentioned only once in Sa-ui-dangji, a historical record documenting the layout and plantings of a traditional Korean residence. This suggests that it was not frequently used in traditional gardens. Nevertheless, its frequent use in nae-oe-dam hwadan may be attributed to its growth characteristics—specifically, its ability to completely cover wall roofs to block views of areas intended to remain hidden, produce vibrant flowers over an extended period, and thrive in limited planting spaces. The plant names identified in the nae-oe-dam hwadan investigated in this study were referenced using the Korea Plant Names Index.
Planting Techniques
The planting techniques used in the nae-oe-dam hwadan within sarang-madang generally involved solitary planting for tree species, while shrubs and herbaceous plants were arranged in clusters (cluster planting; Fig. 2). In the sarang-madang of the Mulsowa Old House, a single Lagerstroemia indica tree was planted, accompanied by a colony of Liriope muscari at its base (Fig. 2ⓐ ). Particularly in the nae-oe-dam hwadan of the sarang- madang, tree species such as Lagerstroemia indica, Diospyros kaki, Pseudocydonia sinensis, and Pinus densiflora for. multicaulis were commonly planted. In addition, Campsis grandiflora was trained along the wall, enhancing seasonal aesthetics. While Campsis grandiflora was sometimes planted solitarily, it was also combined with other species in mixed planting (Fig. 2ⓒ). The nae-oe-dam hwadan at Uiam Old House included the tree Diospyros kaki, the shrub Buxus koreana, the herbaceous plant Tradescantia ohiensis, and the vine Campsis grandiflora, which was trained along the wall. These plantings appear to have been designed to reflect the seasonal changes in the landscape. At Songso Old House, Buxus koreana—trimmed into rounded forms—was planted in a row (row planting) in the rectangular hwadan outside the nae-oe-dam. The linear arrangement of the plants helps to soften the visual rigidity of the wall and enhances the path-guiding function in the area (Fig. 2ⓓ). Based on the selection of species and the planting and maintenance techniques observed, it is unlikely that these plantings date back to the original construction. Rather, they appear to have been added later by descendants.
In an-madang, tree species such as Camellia japonica, Prunus mume, and Ziziphus jujuba Mill. were planted solitarily to enhance visual privacy, working in conjunction with the nae-oe-dam. In hwadan adjacent to an-chae, shrubs were planted sporadically—one or two at a time in empty spaces—and various additional species, reflecting the tastes of later generations, were introduced to enrich the landscape. The vine Campsis grandiflora was also planted solitarily in an-madang. At Choi Sang-soon House in Gyeongju, it was planted in combination with various shrubs, with careful consideration given to the view from the an-chae. Herbaceous plants were mainly planted in clusters around trees.
In haengrang-madang, the planting techniques included opposite planting of trees, solitary planting of shrubs, and cluster planting of herbaceous plants. At Songso Old House, the opposite planting technique—symmetrical planting of evergreen trees—was employed to screen the oecheuk (an exterior toilet used exclusively by male occupants of the sarang-chae) and the bathroom from view. This technique was primarily used in ceremonial or lecture spaces and was rarely applied to the haengrang-madang of private residences. The planting techniques applied to the nae-oe-dam hwadan at Songso Old House include row planting—which was not commonly used in sarang-madang—and opposite planting, which was introduced in the haengrang-madang. These techniques were generally uncommon in traditional Korean house gardens. Popular tree species and planting methods of the time appear to have been introduced into traditional spaces during the modern period (Fig. 2ⓔ). The trees along the nae-oe-dam in backyards appear to have been planted in clusters primarily for screening purposes rather than for aesthetic landscaping (Fig. 2ⓑ).
The application of planting techniques varied depending on the type of hwadan installed. In one-sided hwadan, one or two types of techniques were typically used, whereas double-sided hwadan generally featured two or more techniques (Table 5). In hwadan where complex methods —such as solitary planting, cluster planting, and mixed planting—were employed, a wider variety of plants types, including trees, shrubs, and herbaceous species, was introduced to enhance the landscape. The site with the greatest diversity of planting techniques was Songso Old House in Cheongsong, where four techniques—cluster planting, mixed planting, row planting, and opposite planting—were applied. In addition, three planting techniques—solitary planting, cluster planting, and mixed planting—were used at Moon Hee-mok House (Dalseong) and the Takyeong Jongtaek (Cheongdo).
Generally, when introducing plants into the gardens of traditional Korean houses, the selection of plant species, planting techniques, and their placement was regarded as highly important. Depending on the site, certain combinations were either encouraged or avoided based on cultural norms. The planting methods commonly used in traditional gardens included cluster planting, solitary planting, scattered planting, and row planting (Kang, 2004). In contrast, nae-oe-dam hwadan, while similar in character to the hwa-o commonly found in sarang-madang, were distinguished by the solitary planting of tall tree species specifically selected to reinforce visual screening—one of the primary functions of nae-oe-dam. This planting approach was observed in 17 of the surveyed houses. Additionally, cluster planting of shrubs and herbaceous plants, which served both screening and aesthetic functions, was found in 11 sites, while mixed planting of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous species appeared in 7 sites. Row planting, employed to guide movement along a pathway, and opposite planting, used to screen undesirable views or facilities, were each observed at one site. The most commonly applied planting technique in nae-oe-dam hwadan was solitary planting, with additional techniques—such as cluster planting or mixed planting of shrubs and herbaceous species around the solitary trees—introduced to enhance the landscape composition.
A conceptual diagram summarizing the landscape characteristics of nae-oe-dam hwadan—in terms of their form, function, and flora (plant composition) by location within traditional houses—is presented in Fig. 3.
Conclusion
In this study, a total of 309 traditional Korean houses in Gyeongsangbuk-do were surveyed, and 20 houses featuring nae-oe-dam hwadan were selected as the primary research sites. Based on the survey results, the form, size, location, function, and plant composition of the nae-oe-dam hwadan were analyzed, and their landscape characteristics were identified as follows.
In traditional Korean houses, nae-oe-dam hwadan were installed in various locations, including the sarang-madang, an-madang, haengrang-madang, and backyards. Among these, the sarang-madang, being an open space exposed to external views, showed the highest frequency of nae-oe-dam hwadan installations due to the need for visual screening. The primary function of nae-oe-dam hwadan was to enhance privacy by blocking views through the planting of trees, while simultaneously serving a decorative garden role. In the case of nae-oe-dam located in an-madang, hwadan were installed in a manner similar to the hwa-o of sarang-madang. Various plant species, including trees, were introduced into these hwadan, indicating a shift from the traditional practice of avoiding plantings in an-madang spaces.
The form of nae-oe-dam hwadan was shaped in accord- ance with the structure of the nae-oe-dam itself. However, since some hwadan were installed on both the inner and outer sides of the nae-oe-dam, they came to surround the wall, resulting in unique configurations not typically found in the hwadan of conventional traditional houses. The size of such nae-oe-dam hwadan was determined by the length and shape of the nae-oe-dam, as well as the growth requirements of the planted species.
A total of 58 plant species across 34 families were identified in the nae-oe-dam hwadan. The tree species used were primarily indigenous, with trees and vines being the dominant plant types. Among the various species identified, the most commonly planted species was Campsis grandiflora, which fully covers the roof of walls, effectively enhancing visual privacy. It was favored for its long flowering period and its aesthetic contribution to the landscape. The most prevalent planting technique was the solitary planting of vines and trees to reinforce the view barrier, while shrubs and herbaceous plants were typically arranged in clusters or mixed plantings to enhance the aesthetic quality of the space.
As such, the analysis of traditional Korean houses in Gyeongsangbuk-do revealed that nae-oe-dam flower beds (nae-oe-dam hwadan)—which have not traditionally been regarded as formal landscaping elements in the same way as hwa-o in conventional house gardens—exhibit a range of distinct landscape characteristics. Although the overall installation rate of nae-oe-dam hwadan was low, they hold significant value as unique landscape components within traditional gardens. Furthermore, most of the houses where nae-oe-dam hwadan were installed also featured hwa-o in the sarang-madang, suggesting that the preferences of garden-conscious builders or residents who actively participated in garden creation were reflected in the overall design.
Nae-oe-dam, which originated from the nae-oe-beop (內外法)—a Confucian principle advocating the separation of men and women—during the Joseon period, continued to be constructed up until the Japanese colonial era. The customs and spatial organization based on this rule remained present even throughout the process of modernization. It is noteworthy that nae-oe-dam, which were originally designed to serve a functional role in blocking visibility, evolved into landscape features through the planting of vegetation, thereby forming a distinct type of traditional garden within daily living spaces. This study is expected to raise awareness of the under-recognized landscape value of nae-oe-dam hwadan in traditional Korean residences, and the findings may serve as foundational data for future cultural heritage management. However, as the scope of this research was limited to the Gyeongsangbuk-do region, further studies are needed to examine nae-oe-dam hwadan in traditional houses located across other regions.
Hwadan (Flower beds)
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