Introduction
Adolescence is a period of rapid physical development coupled with emotional immaturity. This combination results in significant internal and external changes, as well as elevated stress levels. Consequently, this stage of life is considered one of heightened emotional vulnerability, making individuals more susceptible to anxiety, depression, and frustration (Kim, 2008). From a developmental psychology perspective, adolescence typically spans from approximately age 9, marking the end of childhood, to around age 24. It represents a transitional phase situated between childhood and adulthood, often accompanied by profound psychological turmoil. Due to the socio-psychological characteristics of this period, adolescents tend to exhibit an increased tendency toward deviant or exploratory behaviors, making them more vulnerable to various external challenges (Jung, 2005). Notably, adolescents in South Korea often exposed to increasing levels of depression and stress, which are largely attributed to academic pressures and concerns about future career paths. Compared to adults, they often face difficulty regulating emotions especially in situations involving unfulfilled desires, intence stress, and interpersonal conflicts.
Meanwhile, in South Korea, “sheltered adolescents” refers to adolescents who reside in youth shelters due to a lack of a stable home environment, often resulting from family breakdown or conflict. These youths may also have parents who have difficulty raising them or neglect them. These individuals typically stay in such facilities either temporarily or for extended periods, receiving social support instead of parental guardianship. Compared to their peers in the general population, sheltered adolescents tend to be more withdrawn or aggressive. They often develop biased or distorted perceptions of themselves and the surrounding world (Yong, 2006).
Various counseling techniques and interventions for sheltered adolescents are currently being explored and implemented. Among these, horticultural therapy programs have been shown to promote emotional stability and foster the development of sound values (Levinson, 1964). They also appear to support identity formation and enhance a sense of responsibility in adolescents (Langer and Rodin, 1976).
There are various previous studies on the effects of horticultural therapy for adolescents (Han et al., 2009; Jong, 2008; Lim et al., 2015; Moon et al., 2009; Park, 2012). Horticultural therapy and activities offer adolescents a moment of relaxation from their daily routines, allowing them to connect with the natural greenness of plants. This interaction has been shown to provide psychological comfort and stability amidst the artificial grayness of urban environments (Seo and Lee, 2004). Previous studies have reported that horticultural therapy programs are effective in enhancing adolescents’ self-esteem (Kim, 2010), and some argue that plant care activities can contribute to self-esteem development (Jeon, 2009). Furthermore, horticultural activities have been found to positively affect both self-esteem and self-efficacy (Choi et al., 2013).
However, research on horticultural therapy targeting male adolescents remains limited in South Korea. In particular, studies focusing on male adolescents residing in shelters are scarce (Jung, 2014). This study developed a horticultural therapy program to promote psychological stabilization by reflecting the characteristics of sheltered male adolescents. Based on this, the study aimed to help them develop a sense of responsibility and confidence in their actions and to empirically verify the program’s positive effects on self-esteem and self-efficacy.
Research hypothesis
In general, sheltered adolescents often have distorted self-awareness and negative self-images, which are commonly associated with low levels of self-esteem and self-efficacy. Given these characteristics, horticultural therapy programs that promote emotional stability and self-expression are considered to have a positive effect on psychological recovery (Choi et al., 2013).
This study formulated the following research hypotheses for at-risk adolescents residing in youth shelters, drawing upon previous studies on horticultural therapy (Kim et al., 2010; Moon et al., 2009) and Reasoner’s (1982) five-pillar theory of self-esteem—comprising security, identity, belonging, purpose, and competence.
Hypothesis 1: Sheltered male adolescents who participate in a horticultural therapy program will show higher levels of self-esteem compared to those who do not participate.
Hypothesis 2: Sheltered male adolescents who participate in a horticultural therapy program will show higher levels of self-efficacy compared to those who do not participate.
Research Methods
Participants
This study involved 16 male adolescents, aged 19 to 20 years old (mean age = 19.5 years), who resided in a youth shelter in J City. All participants voluntarily consented to the study’s purpose and conditions of participation. J City has three youth shelters, two of which are mid- to long-term facilities. Participants were selected from one of these mid- to long-term shelters, specifically a facility for male adolescents, all of whom were eligible to participate in a 12-session horticultural therapy program. The participants were assigned to either an experimental group (n = 8), which took part in the program, or a control group (n = 8), which did not. Both the experimental and control groups received the basic care and life education provided by the youth shelter. They also participated in key programs, such as “counseling services for runaway adolescents, life guidance, preventive programs addressing youth issues, and cultural programs.” However, neither group had previously participated in any “horticultural therapy-related programs.” To control for the potential influence of gender and to better assess the program’s effectiveness, the study was limited to male adolescents. This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the researchers’ affiliated institution prior to data collection (Approval Number: jjIRB-220324-HR-2021-0831). Written informed consent was obtained from both the participants and their legal guardians.
Horticultural therapy program
Horticultural therapy programs designed for the character education of adolescents generally comprise three elements: horticultural therapists, participants, and horticultural activities. Horticultural therapists guide horticultural therapy programs, provide appropriate activities, and evaluate and improve the effectiveness of these programs. Participants are individuals who experience physical, psychological, and social benefits through engagement in horticultural activities. Horticultural activities typically involve plant-related tasks such as planting, cultivating, and harvesting, which are intended to produce therapeutic outcomes. These three elements interact with one another throughout the course of horticultural therapy programs, resulting in psychological improvement and positive changes for participants (Son, 2014). The role of therapists in horticultural therapy programs is regarded as vital. To ensure professional expertise and program credibility, the therapists involved in this study were selected based on the following criteria: possession of a relevant academic degree (master’s level or higher), certification from a recognized private institution, and a minimum of five years of practical experience in public institutions.
In this study, a horticultural therapy program (Table 1) was carried out through on-site visits to a selected youth shelter from January 15 to March 19, 2022. First, the program was reconstructed based on self-esteem theories of previous research on horticultural therapy for adolescents (Jung, 2008; Lim et al., 2015; Moon et al., 2009, Park 2012) and Reasoner’s (1982) approach to building self-esteem, with the aim of enhancing the five elements of self-esteem—security, identity, belonging, purpose, and competence (Kim et al., 2010). Second, the program consisted of 12 sessions (one session per week, 120 minutes per session), tailored to reflect the psychological characteristics of male adolescents living in youth shelters. It also incorporated psychological intervention components such as emotional exploration and expression, emotional regulation, and social interaction. To promote emotional exploration and expression, as well as emotional regulation, activities such as cultivating succulent terrariums and creating pressed flower frames were included. Self-esteem enhancement was supported through activities like charcoal sculpture, Dasol art, and herb gardening (Kim, Lee, & Seo, 2010). Male adolescents in the experimental group were asked to complete self-esteem and self-efficacy scales both before and after participating in the program, while those in the control group, who did not participate in the program, completed the same scales at corresponding time points. Third, since the participants in this study were male adolescents residing in a youth shelter, it was difficult to allow them to leave the facility or engage in outdoor activities. Efforts were also made to minimize the risk of emotionally stimulated or potentially threatening behaviors during the program. To address this limitation, the program was primarily designed to include activities such as making pressed flower frames, planting, creating balcony gardens, cultivating hydroponic plants, crafting Scandia moss pots, and building mini and herb gardens. These activities focused on indoor plant cultivation, decoration or craftwork, intimate group interactions, sharing, and emotional expression (Choi et al., 2013).
Measurement tools and analysis methods
Self-esteem scale
Self-esteem was assessed using a modified version of the Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI) by Coopersmith (1967), adapted to align with the characteristics and linguistic comprehension level of South Korean adolescents. The scale comprises 25 items, categorized into four subdomains: personal self-esteem (10 items), family self-esteem (5 items), social self-esteem (5 items), and academic self-esteem (5 items). Each item is rated on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 4 = Strongly Agree), with higher scores indicating greater self-esteem. A total of 16 items were reverse-scored, and the reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s α) in this study was .88, indicating good internal consistency.
Self-efficacy scale
Self-efficacy was measured using a scale originally developed by Kim and Cha (1996), based on Bandura’s (1977) concept of self-efficacy, and later revised and refined by Kim (1997). The scale comprises 24 items grouped into three subdomains: self-regulation efficacy (12 items), self-confidence (7 items), and preference for task difficulty (5 items). Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree). Several items (Items 1, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 13, 16, and 19) are negatively worded and therefore reverse-scored. In this study, the scale demonstrated good internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s α of .89.
Analysis methods
All data analyses were conducted using SPSS Statistics version 21.0. The analysis procedures were as follows: First, a frequency analysis was conducted to identify the participants’ demographic characteristics. Second, the internal consistency of the self-esteem and self-efficacy scales was assessed by calculating reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s α). Third, to verify group homogeneity prior to the program, the Shapiro-Wilk test was used to assess the normality of the data, and Levene’s test was conducted to assess the homogeneity of variances. If both assumptions were met, an independent samples t-test was used; otherwise, the Mann-Whitney U test was applied. Fourth, for pre- and post-test comparisons within the experimental group, a paired samples t-test was used when assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variances were satisfied; if not, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used. Fifth, for post-test comparisons between the experimental and control groups, an independent samples t-test was used if assumptions were met, and the Mann-Whitney U test was employed otherwise.
Results and Discussion
Verification of homogeneity between the experimental and control groups
To assess the homogeneity between the experimental and control groups prior to the program, tests for normality (Shapiro-Wilk test) and homogeneity of variances (Levene’s test) were conducted on the pre-test scores for self-esteem and self-efficacy. For self-esteem, the results indicated that both normality (experimental group: W = .85, p = .10; control group: W = .84, p = .09) and homogeneity of variances (F = .27, p = .61) were satisfied. Similarly, for self-efficacy, normality (experimental group: W = .87, p = .18; control group: W = .93, p = .54) and homogeneity of variances (F = .21, p = .64) were also confirmed. Based on these results, independent samples t-tests were performed to compare the pre-test scores between the groups. The results showed no statistically significant differences in self-esteem (t = 1.42, p = .17) or self-efficacy (t = −1.27, p = .22), confirming that the two groups of male adolescents were homogenous in these variables at baseline (Table 2).
Verification of the effectiveness of a horticultural therapy program
Mean differences in self-esteem and self-efficacy were analyzed in the experimental group before and after the program. First, the mean self-esteem score of the experimental group increased from pre-test (M = 2.61, SD = 0.53) to post-test (M = 3.01, SD = 0.43), and this difference was statistically significant (t = −2.57, p < .05; Table 3). However, the control group showed no significant change in self-esteem between the pre- and post-tests (t = −1.66, p > .05). These results suggest that this horticultural therapy program was effective in improving the self-esteem of adolescents. This finding is consistent with previous studies. For example, Kim (2010) found that a horticultural therapy program for adolescents experiencing school maladjustment resulted in reduced maladjustment and impulsivity, as well as improved self-esteem. Jeon (2009) reported increased self-esteem and academic performance in vocational high school students following a horticultural therapy intervention. Choi et al. (2013) also reported that horticultural therapy implemented as part of a character education program for female juvenile detention center inmates improved emotional stability, reduced problematic behaviors, and enhanced both self-esteem and happiness. The results indicate that male adolescents’ anxiety and stress decreased and their happiness and self-esteem improved during the horticultural therapy program in this study.
Second, the mean self-efficacy score of the experimental group increased slightly from the pre-test (M = 2.57, SD = 0.79) to the post-test (M = 2.81, SD = 0.54); however, this difference was not statistically significant (t = −1.87, p > .05; Table 3). Similarly, in the control group, the change in self-efficacy from pre-test to post-test was also not statistically significant (t = −0.44, p > . 05; Table 4).
This result differs from the findings of Choi et al. (2013), who reported increases in positive thinking, self-efficacy, and self-esteem following the implementation of a horticultural therapy program for female juvenile detention center inmates, as well as those of Son (2015), who found that self-efficacy and school adaptability improved among school-maladjusted adolescents after participating in a similar program. Self-efficacy is a concept rooted in Bandura’s (1996) social learning theory and refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to organize and execute the actions required to achieve specific outcomes. Bandura (1977) defined self-efficacy as the belief in one’s capacity to attain desired results, which generates the power and motivation to overcome personal challenges. Similarly, Choi (2007) described self-efficacy as the confidence in one’s ability to successfully perform a given task. Ultimately, self-efficacy can be understood as the productive capability to organize and effectively coordinate the cognitive, emotional, social, and behavioral sub-skills necessary for optimal goal achievement. Although the horticultural therapy program in this study was effective in delivering emotional and physical benefits, it did not systematically incorporate cognitive concepts such as self-efficacy. Moreover, the program’s relatively short duration of only 12 sessions may have reduced the likelihood of producing significant experimental outcomes.
In addition, a comparison of the post-test self-esteem scores between the two groups revealed that the experimental group scored significantly higher than the control group (t = 4.12, p < . 01; Table 5). This result reconfirms the effectiveness of the horticultural therapy program in enhancing self-esteem and is consistent with the aforementioned previous studies by Kim (2010), Jeon (2009), and Choi et al. (2013). These results suggest that horticultural activities positively affect self-awareness and emotional stability in male adolescents.
However, there was no significant difference in self-efficacy between the two groups (t = −1.45, p > .05), suggesting that the program did not result in significant improvements in self-efficacy (Table 5). This outcome indicates the need for longer-term interventions to foster self-efficacy. Future studies should consider supplementing and refining the program to achieve more substantial effects.
Conclusion
This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a recently highlighted horticultural therapy program in enhancing the psychological well-being and social adaptation of male adolescents residing in youth shelters. The findings are summarized as follows: First, self-esteem among participants in the experimental group who engaged in the horticultural therapy program improved significantly compared to those in the control group who did not participate. Second, although the self-efficacy of the experimental group did not show a statistically significant change compared to the control group, a slight positive change was observed. These results suggest that the horticultural therapy program had a positive effect on improving self-esteem in male adolescents living in shelters. However, its effect on self-efficacy was limited, indicating that the program may not have been sufficient to produce meaningful changes in self-esteem.
The findings on self-esteem are consistent with those of previous studies, including Kim (2009), Jeon (2009), Kim (2010), Choi et al. (2013), and Kim (2017), suggesting partial support for the effectiveness of the horticultural therapy program used in this study. It appears that the processes of planting, cultivating, and caring for plants inherent in horticultural therapy may have naturally reduced anxiety and stress in male adolescents, thereby enhancing their self-esteem (Kim et al., 2010). Moreover, previous studies have demonstrated that the use of indoor and outdoor green plants contributes to the recovery of both mental and physical health (Song et al., 2010) and yields therapeutic effects (Song, 2008). Beyond the psychological stability derived from viewing and interacting with green plants during horticultural activities, it can be inferred that these activities may also lead to positive physical effects, such as reduced blood pressure and heart rate and enhanced immune system functioning (Ulrich, 1999).
However, unlike the effect of the horticultural therapy on self-esteem—which can be relatively easily achieved through emotional, social, or physical changes—the effect on self-efficacy, which involves expectations of change in the cognitive domain, was not readily observed. This may be attributed to the limited duration of the program (12 sessions) and the overall short intervention period, as well as the lack of a systematic approach to addressing cognitive components. Future research should delve deeper into the structure and content of horticultural therapy programs, the professional competence of therapists, and the characteristics of participants.
This study has significance in implementing a horticultural therapy program, which has been reported to be effective for both adults and male adolescents, for at-risk youth in youth shelters, and empirically verifying its effects. Moreover, the study sought to provide empirical and foundational data that can be utilized for the psychosocial and emotional growth and healing of male adolescents in shelters or correctional facilities in the future.
However, this study has several limitations. First, the sample size was small and limited to male adolescents residing in shelters, which restricts the generalizability of the findings to the broader population of at-risk youth. Future studies should include a larger and more diverse sample, encompassing both male and female adolescents, and examine potential differences in program outcomes based on individual characteristics such as gender. Second, the measurement tools used to assess the effectiveness of the horticultural therapy program were limited to self-esteem and self-efficacy scales, which seem to capture only a narrow range of psychological constructs. Future research should incorporate a wider variety of validated and reliable instruments—such as those measuring emotional perception, emotion regulation, and interpersonal relationships—to comprehensively evaluate emotional and social changes. Third, horticultural therapy programs designed for at-risk adolescents may differ substantially in both content and implementation from those developed for the general adolescent or adult population. Therefore, further research is needed to develop and validate horticultural therapy programs tailored specifically to the needs of at-risk youth.
It is hoped that future research will continue to develop and implement horticultural therapy programs, as well as a range of psychological intervention programs, aimed at supporting socially vulnerable populations, including at-risk youth.
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