A Study of the Effects of Perceived Restorativeness of Urban Street Gardens on User Satisfaction and Reuse Intention
Article information
Abstract
Background and objective
The objective of this study was to analyze the effect of the perceived restorativeness of urban street gardens on user satisfaction and reuse intention, and further to analyze the mediating effect of user satisfaction on the relationship between perceived restorativeness and reuse intention.
Methods
A survey was conducted of users of street gardens in downtown Daegu, and 341 valid responses were used in the final analysis.
Results
The analysis found that the perceived restorativeness of urban street gardens has a positive effect on user satisfaction, which in turn enhances their intention to reuse these spaces. In particular, the “scope” of urban gardens had the largest effect among the factors of perceived restorativeness of the urban street gardens.
Conclusion
It was confirmed that urban street gardens have a positive effect on urban residents as restorative environmental spaces. This study has academic significance, in that it identifies the factors that affect user satisfaction with and reuse of restorative environments.
Introduction
Today, people face challenges such as stress and fatigue and are seeking opportunities for physical and mental recovery to maintain a healthy life (Lee, 2020). As part of urban planning, street gardens created along sidewalks as resting spaces for modern people are becoming an alternative. In 2012, the Seoul Metropolitan Government enacted the Pedestrian Safety and Convenience Enhancement Act, and based on this law, began transforming streets that had previously focused solely on pedestrian traffic into beautiful, garden-like paths featuring flowers, trees, and resting areas. Following this, many local governments began creating street parks, establishing small resting spaces in downtown areas.
These resting spaces can also be found in urban street gardens, which serve as representative natural environments. Street gardens help people recover from stress and rejuvenate attention (Lee et al., 2020). The four main components to identify restorative environments are being away, fascination, coherence, and compatibility (Herzog et al., 1997). “Being away” refers to elements that provide relaxation in a comfortable environment, allowing individuals to psychologically escape from daily stressors (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989). “Fascination” refers to an environment that naturally attracts attention without requiring sustained effort or conscious control. It involves the interaction between the current state, the quality of a restorative environment, and an individual’s past experiences (Basu et al., 2019). “Coherence” refers to the sense of immersion (connectivity) and exploratory experience (scope) provided by an environment. “Compatibility” refers to the alignment between the activities within an environment and an individual’s goals or tendencies (Moran, 2019).
Restorative environments are spaces created based on Attention Restoration Theory (ART; Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989). According to this theory, modern people’s daily lives often involve activities that increase psychological and physical fatigue, making directed attention necessary for effectively managing daily tasks. Directed attention refers to the mental effort required to focus on specific information. However, when this type of attention is repeatedly demanded amid the constant external stimuli of an urban environment, it can lead to attentional fatigue, making it harder to perform daily tasks effectively (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989; Kaplan, 1995).
Downtown street environments can serve as a representative restorative space for city dwellers (Jeong and Lim, 2021; Ko et al., 2022). After a long day, people often experience attentional fatigue from the demands of directed attention. “A restorative environment” is one where they can escape this fatigue and find relaxation. (Kim et al., 2020; Yoon and Kim, 2020). Such street environments provide a sense of nature even in downtown areas. Plants such as trees, flowers, and grass are incorporated, helping to reduce stress and fatigue for city dwellers. (Lee et al., 2020). In particular, street gardens—small gardens located next to roads—offer a peaceful escape from the noise and hustle of urban life. Despite being in downtown areas, these gardens are filled with greenery and vibrant flowers, providing a space for relaxation and tranquility (Plonska et al., 2019). Street environments, such as street gardens, also function as walking paths and provide spaces for people to unwind from the mental stress of daily life. These environments allow city dwellers to recover from fatigue effortlessly and play an important role in enhancing their quality of life in urban areas. Furthermore, street environments enhance the aesthetic appeal of urban areas and contribute to environmental protection, while also playing a vital role in supporting the health of city dwellers. As such, street environments appear to be essential for promoting both the mental and physical recovery of urban residents and improving their quality of life.
User satisfaction refers to an individual’s response to or evaluation of their experience with a product, service, or environment, and it can be understood as a measure of how well the user’s expectations or needs are met (Giese and Cote, 2000). Satisfaction is not only related to the functional aspects of a product or service but is also closely connected to the psychological, social, and cultural factors of the user. Research on user satisfaction is actively conducted across various academic fields, with user satisfaction with public spaces, such as urban street gardens, being evaluated based on the functional, aesthetic, environmental, mental, and social aspects of these spaces. Satisfaction with street gardens varies depending on how comfortable and enjoyable the space is, how well it integrates with the surrounding environment, and how effectively it serves its purpose of providing stress relief and relaxation (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989). User satisfaction is regarded as a key factor in enhancing the quality of life for individuals and communities by improving products or services, creating a sustainable environment, and fostering social connectivity. Understanding and assessing user satisfaction plays a crucial role in refining products or services, redesigning spaces, and modifying policies (Oliver, 1980).
Reuse intention is a concept that indicates the likelihood that a customer or user will re-use a particular product, service, or experience. It is closely related to factors such as customer satisfaction, trust, and perceptions of quality. Developing reuse intention is considered a key element in ensuring the long-term success of a company or organization (Oliver, 1999). Reuse intention is commonly used as a key indicator to understand how satisfied a service user is and how that satisfaction affects the user’s behavior. When a user is satisfied with a product or service, his or her intention to reuse it tends to rise, which can lead to greater loyalty to the product or service (Zeithaml et al., 1996). Notably, in contexts such as urban street gardens, reuse intention serves as a valuable measure of how well the design, management, and maintenance of the space meet users’ expectations and needs (Whyte, 1980).
Perceived restorativeness refers to the extent to which psychological stability is experienced through streetscapes or natural elements in urban areas. The stronger this perception, the greater the user satisfaction (Lee et al., 2015). The comfort and pleasantness of these spaces promote positive feelings in users, which in turn increases satisfaction. As satisfaction increases, so does the intention to reuse the space or service. (Park & Oh, 2013). Ultimately, perceived restorativeness and user satisfaction are closely linked to reuse intention and play a crucial role in the management and revitalization of urban street environments. This is particularly important in public spaces, such as street gardens, which address the psychological and social needs of users. High levels of perceived restorativeness and user satisfaction are factors that contribute to long-term use and maintenance by improving the quality of life of urban residents and fostering positive attitudes toward public spaces.
The goal of street garden projects in South Korea is to create resting spaces that provide aesthetic comfort and a sense of tranquility for pedestrians. To achieve this, these gardens are designed to be distinct from the surrounding sidewalks, allowing users to enjoy a sense of separation. The layout is planned so that visitors can relax without feeling disturbed by others. As a result, users experience both physical and psychological healing during their brief breaks in these tranquil spaces (Shin et al., 2014). However, research on whether street gardens produce the expected effects—specifically, whether they provide users with psychological well-being, as well as actual user satisfaction and their intention to revisit in the future—remains very limited.
Therefore, this study aims to analyze the effects of perceived restorativeness on user satisfaction with urban street gardens and reuse intention, and to further investigate the mediating effect of user satisfaction on the relationship between perceived restorativeness and reuse intention. The results of this study are expected to provide foundational data for improving the use of urban street gardens.
Research Methods
Survey overview
In this study, a survey was conducted among users of eight street gardens in downtown Daegu. At each study site, 45 participants were selected using a convenience sampling method. The street gardens surveyed in Daegu included: 1. Geondeulbawi Intersection, Icheon-ro, Nam-gu; 2. Dong-gu Office, Ayang-ro, Dong-gu (adjacent to it); 3. Dong-gu Office, Ayang-ro, Dong-gu (across the street); 4. Dongchon Intersection, Dongchon-ro, Dong-gu; 5. Dongchon-ro, Dong-gu (Geomsa-dong); 6. Dopyeong-ro, Dong-gu (Dopyeong-dong); 7. Sinam-ro, Buk-gu (Daehyeondong); and 8. Sinam-ro, Buk-gu (Chilseong Market). Fig. 1 shows field photos of the eight street gardens (eight sites) being surveyed. The urban street gardens were selected as study sites based on the following reasons, each with its own unique environmental characteristics: Site 1 is a historical location with a rich history; Sites 2 and 3 are situated near the district office; Site 4 is a street garden located at a major road intersection; Site 5 is a representative downtown street garden along a wide eight-lane road; Site 6, located at the entrance to Natural Monument No. 1, is a street garden frequented by many users; Site 7 connects an apartment complex to a nearby road; and Site 8 is located near a large market.
Photos of the street garden sites to be surveyed.
After explaining the purpose and intent of the survey to users of the downtown street gardens in Daegu City, a questionnaire was distributed on-site to those who agreed to participate. Participants were asked to complete the questionnaire using the self-administered method, and the responses were collected upon completion. The survey was conducted over approximately four weeks, from the first to the fourth week of April 2023. Out of a total of 360 responses, 341 valid responses were used for the final analysis after excluding incomplete or insincere responses. The survey overview is shown Table 1.
Survey overview
Measurement tools
Perceived restorativeness
To assess the perceived restorativeness of urban street garden users, this study drew on the frameworks of Kaplan and Kaplan (1989), Berto (2005), and Kwon (2017). It identified four key subfactors: being away, fascination, coherence, and scope, which comprise a total of 11 items. These items include: “This space is attractive,” “When I am in this space, I feel like I am getting away from the stresses of everyday life,” “The elements in this space are well organized,” “When I am in this space, I feel a desire to explore further,” and others. Each item was rated on a 5-point Likert scale: “Strongly Disagree” = 1 point, “Disagree” = 2 points, “Neutral” = 3 points, “Agree” = 4 points, and “Strongly Agree” = 5 points. A higher total score reflects a higher level of perceived restorativeness among urban street garden users. (Yoon & Kim, 2020).
User satisfaction
This study uses three items, based on Hwang’s (2021) research, to assess user satisfaction with urban street gardens. The items are as follows: “Are you satisfied with the facilities and environment of this park?,” “Are you satisfied with this park overall?,” and others. Each item was rated on a 5-point Likert scale: “Very Dissatisfied” = 1 point, “Dissatisfied” = 2 points, “Neutral” = 3 points, “Satisfied” = 4 points, and “Very Satisfied” = 5 points. A higher total score indicates greater satisfaction among urban street garden users.
Reuse intention
This study included five items, based on Yuan’s (2023) research, to assess the reuse intention of urban street garden users. The items were as follows: “I would like to walk in the street garden often,” “I plan to visit the street garden again in the future,” “I would like to visit the street garden with friends or colleagues,” and others. Each item was rated on a 5-point Likert scale: “Strongly Disagree” = 1 point, “Disagree” = 2 points, “Neutral” = 3 points, “Agree” = 4 points, and “Strongly Agree” = 5 points. A higher total score indicates a stronger intention to reuse urban street gardens.
Analysis method
In this study, data analysis was conducted using SPSS 27.0 and PROCESS Macro software. The analysis was carried out in three stages. In the first stage, the demographic characteristics of urban street garden users were examined, and descriptive statistics, including frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation, were calculated for the users’ perceptions, satisfaction, and revisit intentions regarding the street gardens. In the second stage, an exploratory factor analysis was performed to assess the validity and reliability of the survey questionnaire, and Cronbach’s α coefficient was calculated. Finally, a multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between users’ perceptions, satisfaction, and revisit intentions regarding the street gardens. The bootstrapping method was applied to test the mediating effect. All analyses were conducted at a statistical significance level of 0.05.
Research model and hypothesis setting
Research model
In this study, the “perceived restorativeness” of urban street garden users was established as the independent variable, while “reuse intention” were designated as the dependent variable. Moreover, “user satisfaction” was included as a mediating variable to explore the causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables as shown in research model Fig. 2. Based on this framework, we examined how the perceived restorativeness of urban street gardens affects reuse intention through user satisfaction.
Research model.
According to Kaplan and Kaplan (1989), restorative environments can be identified through four key components. The first component, “being away,” suggests that restorative effects are most apparent when one is in an environment different from one’s daily surroundings. This is particularly relevant for urban dwellers, and the restorative effect can often be achieved when one is in a natural environment away from one’s daily life. The second component, “fascination,” highlights the importance of an environment being sufficiently engaging. It refers to an element of the environment that can effortlessly capture and hold one’s attention for extended periods of time. Kaplan and Kaplan (1989) emphasize the significance of nature’s patterns in this context. The third component, “coherence,” refers to the spaciousness and harmony of a space. It asserts that the environment should be well-organized, stimulating one’s desire to explore further. Finally, “scope” refers to the sense of vastness perceived within an environment. A highly compatible environment is one where individuals can effortlessly engage in desired activities. In other words, in terms of perceived restorativeness, scope implies a space that encourages further exploration or allows for un-restricted movement within the environment.
Other researchers have further developed and explored the attention restoration theory (ART) proposed by Kaplan and Kaplan (1989). Berto (2005) suggested an additional component, “scope,” alongside the original four. In this context, scope refers to the desire to explore a space more and the extent to which movement feels unrestricted within it.
In line with this discussion of restorative environments, perceived restorativeness is defined as the perception of an environment where one can effortlessly recover from the fatigue of daily directed attention and a nature-based environment where one can restore emotional health. Such an environment can provide restorative experiences, including stress relief, attention recovery, mental peace, and the restoration of vitality, particularly in urban street gardens. Building on this theoretical background, this study broke down the perceived restorativeness of urban street garden users into four sub-factors: “being away,” “fascination,” “coherence,” and “scope.” Meanwhile, compatibility was not included as a factor of perceived restorativeness for urban street garden users in this study. Since the urban street gardens that were the study sites are small-scale, natural environments located in downtown areas rather than typical natural settings, the scope factor appeared to be more important than compatibility, which refers to the alignment between activities in the environment and individuals’ goals or tendencies. Accordingly, the compatibility factor was excluded, and the scope factor was included. User satisfaction and reuse intention were each included as a single factor.
Hypothesis
Based on the model of this study, the following hypotheses were derived.
Hypothesis 1. Perceived restorativeness of urban street garden users will have a positive (+) effect on user satisfaction.
Hypothesis 1-1. Perceived “fascination” will have a positive (+) effect on user satisfaction.
Hypothesis 1-2. Perceived “being away” will have a positive (+) effect on user satisfaction.
Hypothesis 1-3. Perceived “coherence” will have a positive (+) effect on user satisfaction.
Hypothesis 1-4. Perceived “scope” will have a positive (+) effect on user satisfaction
Hypothesis 2. User satisfaction with urban street garden environments will have a positive (+) effect on their intention to reuse these spaces.
Hypothesis 3. Perceived restorativeness of urban street garden users will have a positive (+) effect on reuse intention.
Hypothesis 3-1. Perceived “fascination” will have a positive (+) effect on reuse intention.
Hypothesis 3-2. Perceived “being away” will have a positive (+) effect on reuse intention.
Hypothesis 3-3. Perceived “coherence” will have a positive (+) effect on reuse intention.
Hypothesis 3-4. Perceived “scope” will have a positive (+) effect on reuse intention.
Hypothesis 4. User satisfaction will acts as a mediator between perceived restorativeness and reuse intention among urban street garden users.
Hypothesis 4-1. User satisfaction will acts as a mediator between perceived “fascination” and reuse intention
Hypothesis 4-2. User satisfaction will acts as a mediator between perceived “being away” and reuse intention
Hypothesis 4-3. User satisfaction will acts as a mediator between perceived “coherence” and reuse intention.
Hypothesis 4-4. User satisfaction will acts as a mediator between perceived “scope” and reuse intention.
Results
Demographic characteristics of participants
Examining the demographic characteristics of the participants (Table 2), the gender distribution shows that 56.0% are female, compared to 44.0% male. This indicates a higher proportion of females among the users of the spaces. The age distribution spans a broad range, from individuals in their 20s to those in their 50s and older, with the highest percentage (35.2%) falling within the 30s age group. This suggests that urban street gardens are particularly popular among young adults. In terms of education, the largest proportion of users (58.7%) have either completed or are currently enrolled in college, while 26.7% hold a graduate degree or higher. This indicates that individuals with higher levels of education are more likely to prefer urban street gardens. In terms of length of time spent in urban street gardens, the largest proportion of users (44.0%) spent between 30 minutes and 1 hour in the spaces, while 38.4% stayed for 1 hour or more. This suggests that users generally spend a considerable amount of time in these spaces. In contrast, 17.6% of users stayed for 30 minutes or less, indicating that shorter visits are relatively uncommon.
Participants
Reliability and validity of measurement tools
In this study, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and reliability analysis were used as the preliminary tools of analysis as shown in Table 3, Table 4, Table 5. The EFA of the initial survey items employed orthogonal rotation (varimax), with an eigenvalue of 1.0 or greater and factor loadings of 0.5 or higher as the criteria for retaining items. Items that did not meet these thresholds were removed, particularly items 1, 5, 9, and 22, which were excluded from the perceived restorativeness variables. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) value was very high at .965, and Bartlett’s test of sphericity yielded a p-value of less than .001. These results confirm the appropriateness of factor analysis and the presence of underlying common factors.
Reliability and validity of the perceived restorativeness measures
Reliability and validity of user satisfaction measures
Reliability and validity of reuse intention measures
In the reliability analysis, the internal consistency of each factor was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. All coefficients exceeded 0.6, indicating high reliability. In particular, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for factors such as fascination, coherence, scope, and social value were very high, with values of .934, .888, .894, .895, and .900, respectively. These results confirm that these variables exhibited high internal consistency and were reliable.
In this study, three items measuring user satisfaction were subjected to an EFA. The KMO value was .745, and the result of Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (p < .001), confirming that the factor analysis was appropriate and that common factors exist. Based on these results, one factor was extracted, and the factor loadings of all items were 0.5 or higher, indicating high validity of the derived factor. Moreover, in the reliability analysis, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the user satisfaction variables was .893, exceeding the standard threshold of 0.6. This indicates that the measures used in this study have high internal consistency.
An EFA of reuse intention showed a KMO value of .740, indicating sufficient sample adequacy. Additionally, Bartlett’s test of sphericity yielded a p-value of less than .001, confirming the appropriateness of the factor analysis and the existence of common factors. Based on these results, one factor was extracted, and the factor loadings for all items were 0.5 or higher, suggesting high validity of the derived factor. In the reliability analysis, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for reuse intention was .909, well above the standard threshold of 0.6. This indicates high internal consistency, suggesting that the measures used in the study are highly reliable.
Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis
In this study, the mean, standard deviation, and range of each variable were calculated to examine the trends of the main variables. These statistical indicators are valuable for identifying the central tendency, variability, and range of data. Additionally, skewness and kurtosis were estimated to test the assumption of normality of the data. Skewness measures the asymmetry in the data distribution, while kurtosis measures its peakedness. These two indicators help determine whether the data follows a normal distribution or deviates in any direction. According to Kline (2011), if the absolute value of skewness is 3.0 or higher, or the absolute value of kurtosis is 10.0 or higher, the normality assumption is violated. However, the results of this study confirm that the normality assumption is met, as shown in Table 6.
Descriptive statistics for the variables
There was a positive (+) correlation between the perceived restorativeness sub-factors and user satisfaction and reuse intention, with correlation coefficients ranging from 0.48 to 0.70, all statistically significant at either the 0.01 or 0.001 level as shown in Table 7. The correlation between “fascination” and “being away” was 0.52 (p < .01), while the correlation between “fascination” and “scope” was slightly higher at 0.57 (p < .001), suggesting a stronger positive relationship. In addition, correlation between “scope” and user satisfaction was 0.68 (p < .01), and the correlation between user satisfaction and reuse intention was 0.70 (p < .001), indicating a relatively strong positive (+) relationship between these pairs. Significant positive correlations were also found between “being away” and “coherence” (0.50, p < .01), “being away” and “scope” (0.55, p < .01), and “coherence” and “scope” (0.53, p < .001), suggesting significant positive (+) relationships among these factors.
Correlation analysis results
Hypothesis testing results
This study analyzed the effects of the perceived restorativeness of urban street gardens on user satisfaction as shown in Table 8. Prior to the analysis, the variance inflation factor (VIF) was calculated to assess potential multicollinearity issues. The VIF values for all independent variables ranged from 2.519 to 4.525, all of which were below the threshold of 10. This indicates that multicollinearity is not a concern among the independent variables. In addition, the Durbin-Watson (D/W) statistic was 1.934, confirming the absence of autocorrelation in the residuals. A regression analysis revealed that the explanatory power of perceived restorativeness on user satisfaction was R2 = .732, indicating that the perceived restorativeness variables accounted for approximately 73.2% of the variation in user satisfaction. Moreover, the F-value was 144.235, confirming that the regression model was statistically significant at the 0.001 significance level. These results suggest that perceived restorativeness has a significant effect on user satisfaction with urban street gardens. Among the sub-factors of the perceived restorativeness of urban street gardens, “fascination” (β = .146, p < .05), “being away” (β = .178, p < .01), “coherence” (β = . 244, p < .001), and “scope” (β = . 252, p < .001) were found to have a significant positive (+) effect on user satisfaction. The relative effect of these factors was ranked as follows: “scope,” “coherence,” “being away,” and “fascination.” In conclusion, Hypotheses 1-1, 1-2, 1-3, and 1-4 were all supported regarding the effects of perceived restorativeness of urban street gardens on user satisfaction.
Effects of perceived restorativeness of urban street gardens on user satisfaction
The results of testing the effect of user satisfaction with urban street gardens on reuse intention are presented in Table 9. The regression model showed an explanatory power of R2 = .708, indicating that 70.8% of the variance in reuse intention could be explained by user satisfaction. Moreover, the F-statistic of 650.032 confirmed the appropriateness of the model at the significance level of α = .001. User satisfaction with urban street gardens (β = .841, p < .001) was found to have a significant positive (+) effect on reuse intention. Therefore, Hypothesis 2, which states that user satisfaction with urban street gardens will affect reuse intention, is supported.
Effects of user satisfaction with urban street gardens on reuse intention
This study analyzed the effect of the perceived restorativeness of urban street gardens on users’ reuse intention as shown in Table 10. To assess potential multicollinearity, the VIF was estimated, yielding values between 2.519 and 4.525, all of which are below the threshold of 10. This indicates that multicollinearity is not a concern among the independent variables. Additionally, the D/W value was 1.967, confirming that there is no autocorrelation among the residuals. A regression analysis showed that the perceived restorativeness of urban street gardens explained 75.1% of the variance in users’ reuse intention (R2 = .751). Moreover, the F-value of 159.471 confirmed that the regression model was statistically significant at the 0.001 level. These results indicate that the perceived restorativeness of urban street gardens has a significant effect on users’ reuse intention.
Effects of the perceived restorativeness of urban street gardens on reuse intention
Among the sub-factors of the perceived restorativeness of urban street gardens, “fascination” (β = .123, p < .05), “coherence” (β = . 245, p < .001), and “scope” (β = . 278, p < .001) were found to have significant positive (+) effects on users’ reuse intention. The relative effect of these factors was ranked as follows: scope, coherence, and fascination. In conclusion, Hypotheses 3-1, 3-3, and 3-4 were supported, while Hypothesis 3-2 was rejected, regarding the effects on urban street garden users’ reuse intention.
To test the mediating effect of user satisfaction on the relationship between the perceived restorativeness of urban street gardens and users’ reuse intention, bootstrapping was performed using the PROCESS macro for SPSS (Model 4). The results are shown in Table 11.
Mediating effects of user satisfaction on the relationship between the perceived restorativeness of urban street gardens and reuse intention
In this study, the mediating (indirect) effects of multiple pathways were tested using the bootstrapping method. The sample size was set at 5,000, and the reliability of the mediating effects for each pathway was assessed using a 95% confidence interval. The results indicated that all hypotheses were statistically significant, as the confidence intervals did not include 0. First of all, the indirect effect coefficient for the pathway “fascination → user satisfaction → reuse intention” was .0542, with the lower limit of the confidence interval at .0058 and the upper limit at .1167, supporting the acceptance of Hypothesis 4-1. Next, the indirect effect coefficient for the pathway “being away → user satisfaction → reuse intention” was .0650, with the lower limit at .0092 and the upper limit at .1247, confirming the acceptance of Hypothesis 4-2. Although “being away” was previously found to have no statistically significant effect on reuse intention (p = .098), a bootstrapping analysis found a significant indirect effect through user satisfaction in the pathway: “being away → user satisfaction → reuse intention.” This highlights the importance of considering the role of user satisfaction in this relationship.
The indirect effect coefficient for the pathway “coherence → user satisfaction → reuse intention” was .0913, with a confidence interval ranging from .0373 (lower limit) to .1150 (upper limit), supporting the acceptance of Hypothesis 4-3. Lastly, the indirect effect coefficient for the pathway “scope → user satisfaction → reuse intention” was .0879, with a confidence interval ranging from .0402 (lower limit) to .1502 (upper limit), confirming the acceptance of Hypothesis 4-4. These results confirm that each independent variable has a significant effect on reuse intention through user satisfaction.
Discussion
The discussion of the results of hypothesis testing in this study is as follows. First, among the sub-factors of perceived restorativeness of urban street gardens, “fascination,” “being away,” “coherence,” and “scope” were found to have a significant positive (+) effect on user satisfaction. The relative effect of these factors was ranked as follows: “scope,” “coherence,” “being away,” and “fascination.” These results suggest that the various sub-factors of perceived restorativeness of urban street gardens have complex and interconnected effects on user satisfaction. “Scope” of street gardens enhances user satisfaction by providing diverse activities and opportunities for rest. “Coherence” promotes a sense of comfort by providing spatial consistency and immersion. Meanwhile, “being away” serves as an important space for users to relax and escape the stresses of daily life. This suggests that these sub-factors should be given sufficient consideration in the design and management of urban street gardens. In other words, rather than focusing only on aesthetic elements, it is important to also consider the “scope” of the space, consistency, and functionality to enhance user satisfaction and promote reuse intention. Therefore, in the future design or renovation of urban street gardens, efforts should be made to reflect these findings and create more user-friendly spaces.
Second, user satisfaction with urban gardens was found to have a significant positive (+) effect on their intention to reuse the space. Urban street gardens serve as restorative environments that help alleviate the stress and fatigue of daily life, providing users with a positive experience. This experience, in turn, enhances user satisfaction, which naturally leads to a greater likelihood of reuse. Moreover, urban street gardens provide resting areas, green spaces, and scenic beauty, all of which enhance users’ quality of life. These attributes boost user satisfaction and encourage repeat visits. User satisfaction is also related to positive perceptions of the space’s maintenance, safety, and accessibility. When users are satisfied with these factors, their intention to reuse the space increases.
Third, among the sub-factors of perceived restorativeness in urban street gardens, “fascination,” “coherence,” and “scope” were found to have a significant positive (+) effect on users’ intention to reuse the space. The relative effect of these factors was ranked as follows: “scope,” “coherence,” and “fascination.” First of all, “fascination” enhances the pleasure and interest users experience in street gardens, which seems to strongly motivate them to visit again. “Coherence” refers to the connectivity and explorability of the environment, allowing users to satisfy their curiosity and desire for exploration, which can serve as an important factor in increasing reuse intention. “Scope” pertains to the size or extent of the space, with an appropriate scope fostering a sense of stability and providing room for various activities, thereby increasing the likelihood of users returning. Finally, functional value refers to the specific benefits provided by the space. For example, if a street garden provides sufficient shelter, shade, flowers, trees, and other features, users may perceive the space as improving their quality of life, which plays a key role in increasing reuse intention.
Fourth, “fascination,” “being away,” “coherence,” and “scope” all showed positive effects on reuse intention through user satisfaction as a mediator. “Fascination” offers users a unique experience and enjoyment, while “being away” provides an escape from daily stress. “Coherence” facilitates immersion in the environment, and “scope” ensures spatial comfort. These factors contribute to a positive user experience, which increases user satisfaction. Satisfied users, in turn, are more likely to return. These findings suggest the importance of focusing on elements that enhance user satisfaction when designing and managing street gardens or similar public spaces. In particular, since factors such as “fascination,” “being away,” “coherence,” and “scope” increase user satisfaction, strengthening these elements can increase reuse intention. These results can be valuable insights when developing improvement plans for existing urban street garden spaces.
Conclusion
This study aimed to examine the effects of users’ perceived restorativeness and their emotional responses in urban street gardens on user satisfaction and intention to reuse these spaces, as well as the mediating effect of user satisfaction in the relationship between perceived restorativeness and reuse intention. A survey was conducted over two weeks, from the first to the second week of April 2023, targeting users of street gardens in downtown Daegu City. Out of 350 responses, 341 valid responses were used in the final analysis after excluding insincere entries. The main findings are as follows.
First, among the sub-factors of perceived restorativeness in urban street gardens, “fascination,” “being away,” “coherence,” and “scope” were found to have significant positive (+) effects on user satisfaction. The relative effect of these factors was ranked as follows: “scope,” “coherence,” “being away,” and “fascination.”
Second, users’ satisfaction with urban street gardens was found to have significant positive (+) effects on their reuse intention.
Third, among the sub-factors of perceived restorativeness of urban street gardens, “fascination,” “coherence,” and “scope” were found to have significant positive (+) effects on users’ intention to reuse. The relative effect of these factors was ranked in the following order: “scope,” “coherence,” and “fascination.”
Fourth, “fascination,” “being away,” “coherence,” and “scope” were all found to positively affect users’ intention to reuse, with user satisfaction acting as a mediator.
The academic implications of this study are as follows: First, it is significant in that it has shown that the perceived restorativeness and emotional responses experienced by users in urban street gardens have a direct effect on user satisfaction and their intention to revisit. In contrast to previous studies, which have mainly focused on recreational forests, forest bathing areas and the landscaping of apartment complexes, this study empirically demonstrated the importance of natural elements in the daily environment of urban residents by applying the theoretical framework of perceived restorative qualities of street gardens along urban streets. Notably, the finding that “scope” had the largest effect among the sub-factors of perceived restorativeness appears to reinforce the need for and effectiveness of large-scale green spaces and landscaping in urban settings. This not only provides additional grounds for existing theoretical studies on perceived restorativeness, but is also of great academic significance in broadening the scope of research on restorative environments in urban settings. Furthermore, it is an important finding of this study that each sub-factor of perceived restorativeness—namely, “fascination,” “being away,” “coherence,” and “scope”— goes beyond simply contributing to an individual’s psychological stability and significantly mediates the formation of user satisfaction and the determination of reuse intention. Furthermore, an important finding of this study is that each sub-factor of perceived restorativeness— namely, “fascination,” “being away,” “coherence,” and “scope”—not only contributes to an individual’s psychological well-being but also significantly mediates the development of user satisfaction and the intention to reuse. By confirming this mediating process, we have further enriched our academic understanding of how attention restoration theory leads to emotional responses and behavioral outcomes in an urban context
As a practical implication, the “scope” aspect is the most crucial factor in planning, designing, and managing urban public spaces to enhance the potential value that urban street gardens can provide. In other words, it suggests the importance of ensuring a sufficient spatial scope when creating street gardens so that users are more likely to perceive the space as more attractive and comfortable. Subfactors such as “coherence” and “fascination” also contribute to user comfort and satisfaction, making it desirable to incorporate more elaborate planting compositions and movement plans into the landscape design. It is also essential to consider elements that fulfill the need for “being away,” such as setting boundaries with surrounding areas or creating distinct rest zones to provide a sense of separation from the noise and congestion of the down. Furthermore, the findings of this study have significant practical implications in that they provide actionable directions for increasing user satisfaction and, ultimately, activating the space to encourage repeat visits. This can be achieved by guiding local governments and relevant organizations to incorporate both physical and psychological elements that maximize users’ perceived restorativeness when designing and managing urban street gardens. As a result, urban street gardens have the potential to be transformed into sustainable spaces that promote relaxation and psychological well-being for urban dwellers, while also enhancing their value as public spaces within urban areas.
However, as this study surveyed 341 users of street gardens in downtown Daegu, there are regional and numerical limitations to the sample, which require caution in generalizing the findings to other regions or urban environments of different sizes across the country. Moreover, since the study relied on a cross-sectional survey method, it is limited in that it does not account for changes in users’ perceptions over time or consider seasonal and environmental factors. As the survey responses were self-administered, there is also a possibility that respondents’ subjective perceptions or memory biases may have affected the results. Therefore, future research should expand the regional scope to better capture diverse urban and regional characteristics, and examine changes in users’ perceptions over time or across seasons through a longitudinal study design. Furthermore, supplementing self-reported data with direct observations, interviews, and objective measurement indicators would help provide richer and more accurate insights.