Introduction
Research background and purpose
In the Joseon period, a nae-oe-dam (a kind of wall or fence) was installed in the women’s space to distinguish between the men’s and women’s areas in traditional Korean houses (hanok) according to the custom of nam-nyeo-yoobyeol (男女有別; the rule of Confucianism that men and women should be separated), a Confucian ideology, and to follow the social norm of nae-oe-beop (ethical virtue that men and women who are not family members should not meet face to face). Women of the nobility lived mainly indoors, and outsiders were not allowed to enter or see the women’s area without permission. This seems to have originated from the Confucian policy of the Joseon period, which placed the highest social restrictions on women based on the nam-nyeo-yoo-byeol ideology shared by the three Asian nations—Korea, Japan, and China (Kim, 2002). Such nae-oe-dams created against this backdrop are of great value as facilities in traditional spaces that show the character and social aspects of the times.
While a typical fence in a house is an installation that divides the boundary and divides the space, a nae-oe-dam is a fence built between buildings that make up a house, also known as a nae-dam or saet-dam. A nae-oe-dam is specially installed between buildings in a traditional house to block the view beyond the wall and to guide the movement of people, and has various functions and forms, including planting plants to be used for as a landscape. However, in terms of the management of traditional houses as cultural heritage, nae-oe-dams have not been treated as important. Although the presence of nae-oe-dams in some well-known traditional houses has been noted, their detailed functions and forms have not been seriously studied. Furthermore, while drawings based on actual measurements have been made for the maintenance of general fences, nae-oe-dams have even lost their original shape or been destroyed during cultural heritage maintenance or repair due to a lack of awareness of their function and landscape value. Traditional walls, made mainly of stone and earth, have deteriorated over time and need to be repaired and restored, and accurate research data on nae-oe-dams can thus play an important role as a basis for their maintenance. Against this backdrop, the purpose of this study was to determine the landscape characteristics of nae-oe-dams in traditional houses. The status of nae-oe-dams of hanoks designated as cultural heritage sites was thoroughly surveyed and analyzed to create basic data (DB). Based on the DB, we tried to analyze the function and form of nae-oe-dams to derive their landscape characteristics.
Trends in relevant research
Compared to the many findings on traditional Korean houses, there have not been many studies on nae-oe-dams. As part of a study of the boundary structures of Joseon Dynasty houses, Kim (1997) examined nae-oe-dams and found that they were a boundary structure created according to Confucianism to prevent people from looking over such walls. Lim (2013) reported that high fences were built intentionally in accordance with the concept of nam-nyeo-yoo-byeol in middle- and upper-class houses in Jeollanam-do in the late Joseon period. Kim (2021) analyzed the characteristics of a noble family’s sarang-chae (men’s quarters), and iksa (annexes on the left and right of a building) in Yeongdeok, Gyeongsangbuk-do, and examined nae-oe-dams as one of the dwelling boundary structures. In addition, Kim (2010) analyzed the interior and exterior spatial elements of a traditional house from a feng shui perspective, suggesting that nae-oe-dams block outsiders’ view of the an-chae (women’s quarters) while supplementing a house’s weaknesses in terms of feng shui. Park and Chung (2016) also examined traditional houses in the Yeonghae area of Gyeongsangbuk-do from a feng shui perspective, suggesting that nae-oe-dams complement their weaknesses caused by the influx of outside air. Since these relevant studies have the limitation of approaching nae-oe-dams as part of traditional residential architecture studies, there is a need for a landscape perspective study of nae-oe-dams as a fullfledged research object.
Research scope and method
Temporal scope
The installation of nae-oe-dams is closely related to the Joseon era. The introduction of Neo-Confucianism in that era brought about great changes in traditional social customs, and among them was the nae-oe-beop, which established various regulations on the relationship between men and women in Confucianism. In other words, nae-oe-dams were installed under the influence of nae-oe-beop, which forbade natural/free encounters/contact between men and women, and regulated their behavior (Oh, 2009).
The main temporal scope of this study is the late Joseon period, when nae-oe-beop became more stringent (Lee, 1988). That is, traditional houses from the late Joseon until liberation from Japanese colonial rule were targeted, as well as one traditional house from the early Joseon with nae-oedams installed. This scope was set in recognition of the need for research on whether nae-oe-dams were installed during the period from 1910 to 1945, when Japanese and Western styles were forcibly transplanted into Korean architecture in the Japanese colonial period (Jung and Lee, 2000).
Spatial scope
There are hundreds of traditional houses designated as cultural heritage sites nationwide. Since this study was a pilot study on nae-oe-dams, it focused on traditional houses in Gyeongsangnam-do. A total of 82 traditional houses and byeol-seo (annexes) with jetaek (residences and pavilions) designated as cultural heritage sites throughout Gyeongsangnam-do (Kim, 2023) were surveyed, and 16 sites with nae-oe-dams were selected as research subjects (Fig. 1).
The official names of the traditional houses surveyed followed the notation method of the Korea Heritage Service (KHS), and the list of nae-oe-dams in Gyeongsangnam-do was compiled following the order of the national heritage classification on the KHS website (Table 1).
Research Methods
For this study, a comprehensive survey and analysis of traditional houses in Gyeongsangnam-do was conducted. First, the designated national and Gyeongsangnam-do heritages were extracted and classified from the data on the KHS website. A field survey was conducted on 82 extracted traditional houses, including provincial folk cultural heritage sites, as well as one national folk cultural heritage site, to select 16 sites with nae-oe-dams as the final research subjects. Previous studies and documentary reports on the selected traditional houses were also analyzed. Second, the field survey was conducted a total of three times: October 17 to December 30, 2022; January 17 to April 28, 2023; and October 3 to December 30, 2023. Third, through the field survey, the location, shape, and materials of nae-oe-dams were investigated, and their height, thickness, and length were measured. Moreover, the landscape elements, flora, and facilities around them were investigated, drawn, and photographed. Fourth, through face-to-face or telephone interviews with 14 descendants of the clans that owned the traditional houses and two villagers, the construction period of the nae-oedams and related information were collected and reflected in the study. Based on these field survey data, the shape and function of nae-oe-dams were analyzed, and finally, the landscape characteristics of nae-oe-dams installed in traditional houses in Gyeongsangnam-do were derived.
Results and Discussion
Concept and history of ≥ae-oe-dams
Etymology and concept of nae-oe-dams
Nae-oe means inside and outside, and also means husband and wife. It also means that “men and women who are not family members avoid meeting face to face” (Standard Korean Dictionary, https://stdict.korean.go.kr/main/main.do). Another example is that it refers to the two genders, including married couples and men and women. It is also understood as a customary norm that “prohibits men and women from coming into natural/free contact/encounter” (Lee, 1988). Nae-oe was a standard of etiquette that was observed between men and women, resulting in the division of their roles and the separation of their spaces accordingly (Lee, 1988).
This social ethic was also applied to residential life, and from the mid-Joseon period onward, it became common to separate male and female spaces in the residences of the literati class (sa-dae-bu), or noble class. This went beyond the simple separation of the husband’s and the wife’s bedrooms. Since the division of roles and living spaces of men and women in couples was a prerequisite, their entire living spaces had to be kept separate from each other. Thus, as areas were divided into sarang-chae and an-chae, each area was to have independent buildings and outdoor spaces and be separated by walls and doors. In cases where the areas were adjacent, a wall or fence, called a nae-oedam, was even built to block the view beyond. The layout of these areas was also determined by the gender roles and status attitudes of “men are in charge of outdoor work and women are in charge of housework” (Kang, 1991).
Dictionary definitions of nae-oe-dam include “a wall built to separate the sarang-chae and an-chae and physically block the view from inside and outside” (Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Culture, https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/main); “a wall built between the sarang-chae and an-chae to serve as a screen” (Kim, 2007); and “a wall built to block the view between the sarang-chae and an-chae or to prevent the inside of the house from being directly seen from the outside” (Lee, 2015). Nae-oe-dam is also broadly defined as “a form that screens the entrance of the an-chae, called heot-dam” (Digital Andong Cultural Encyclopedia, https://andong.grandculture.net/andong) and something to distinguish between upper and lower spaces or to block the view of disgusting/unpleasant facilities (Cho and Kim, 1996). Other names for nae-oe-dam include “cha-myeon-dam” (Kim, 2012), which spatially separates the sarang-chae and an-chae (Kim, 2012); “ga-rim-dam”; “heot-dam,” which is open on one or both sides; and “saet-dam” or “nae-dam,” which is located between buildings in a residence.
Background to the emergence of nae-oe-dams
The nae-oe-beop, which has been discussed along with the ban on women going out in the late Goryeo period, was implemented from the early Joseon period. Measures to regulate nae-oe (husband and wife; men and women) relations based on nae-oe-beop began to be strengthened among central government officials at that time (Oh, 2009). The division of residential areas by gender according to the rule also began among the literati class, who tried to accept and spread the Neo-Confucian lifestyle culture (Kang, 1991).
During the reign of King Sejong, nae-oe-beop was further strengthened, and this ethical virtue regarding the relationship between men and women developed into legal provisions. These were stated in the prohibitions of the Hyeong-jeon (Criminal Law) section of the Gyeongguk Daejeon (Great Code of National Governance), which was completed and promulgated in 1485 (the 16th year of King Seongjong’s reign). As such, nae-oe-beop was strengthened as a law from the early Joseon period onward, and in the late Joseon period it was applied to ordinary women as well (Lee, 2000). Since this strict regulation of nae-oe relations involved the issue of punishment for violation, nae-oe-beop appears to have been a legal sanction provision that regulated women’s contact with men (Lee, 1988).
The influence of this strict social custom of keeping the rules of nae-oe also changed residential life, resulting in the installation of a nae-oe-dam in front of the entrance to the an-chae or between the an-chae and sarang-chae. Moreover, not only residential buildings but also the use of toilets was strictly segregated by gender, with women using the women’s toilet and men using the men’s toilet. This reinforced the notion that men and women could maintain propriety by avoiding each other in everyday life, and served as a backdrop for the segregation of residential areas by gender (Cheon, 2014).
Analysis of the function and form of Nae-oe-dams
Location and function of nae-oe-dams
Nae-oe-dams of traditional houses had different functions depending on where they were installed. Based on the location of the nae-oe-dam, four areas were classified: sarang-madang, an-madang, haengrang-madang, and backyard (Table 2).
Nae-oe-dams in the sarang-madang (sarang-chae courtyard)
There were six places where nae-oe-dams were erected in the sarang-madang: the historic houses of the Goseong Jangsan-ri Heo clan, the Miryang Dajuk-ri Son clan, the Miryang Danjang-myeon Heo clan, the Goseong Songgyeri Lee clan, and the Goseong Park Jinsa clan, as well as the head house of Jinju Lee Sehoo clan (Table 3. ③, ④, ⑤, ⑩, ⑬, ⑭).
Looking at the function of a nae-oe-dam built on a sarang-madang, in the Goseong Jangsan-ri Heo clan’s historic house the nae-oe-dam was built on the left side of the sarang-chae to screen the an-jungmun (gate to the an-chae), which is directly visible from the main gate. It seems that it was built on the side of the sarang-chae due to the layout characteristics of the house, which is located on a slope. This nae-oe-dam was also used to send messages to or communicate with women in the an-chae by making holes with convex tiles.
In the historic house of the Miryang Dajuk-ri Son clan, the an-chae is located deep inside the house, without a boundary wall, in the an-madang. Access between the an-chae and the sarang-chae is through a side gate in the wall connected to the storehouse. The nae-oe-dam built at the end of this wall blocks the view into the an-chae. In the Goseong Songgye-ri Lee clan’s historic house, there is a separate side gate in the outer wall for access to the an-chae. This reflected the idea of the superiority of men over women along with the rule of Confucianism that men and women should be separate), and thus separated the gates for women from those for men (Joo, 2003). A nae-oedam was built on the side of the sarang-chae to block the view of women going to and from the an-chae. In the historic houses of the Miryang Danjang-myeon Heo clan, and the Goseong Park Jinsa clan, a nae-oe-dam was built to block the view of the an-chae from the side of the sarang-chae, and the passageway in front of the nae-oe-dam became the route to the an-chae. In the head house of the Jinju Lee Sehoo, the an-jungmun was shielded from the inner saranag-chae used as an annex. Notably, the head house of Jinju Lee Sehoo and the historic houses of Goseong Jangsan-ri Heo clan and Goseong Park Jinsa, all of which had nae-oe-dams installed in the sarang-madangs, seem to have even had gardens installed in the sarang-madangs to hide the an-chae from outside visitors; according to the descendants, there were indeed many visitors at that time. Based on these cases, it appears that nae-oe-dams were installed to block the view of the an-chaes not only for the men in the sarang-chaes, but also for visitors.
The location where nae-oe-dams were installed is in the sarang-madangs, but it appears that its main purpose was to block the view of the an-chaes and to screen the an-jungmuns even when the an-chaes were not directly visible.
Nae-oe-dams built in the an-madang (an-chae courtyard)
An-madang, an area reserved for women in traditional houses, seems to have actively blocked the view of outsiders, including the male occupants of the house. There were three places where nae-oe-dams were installed in an-madangs: the historic houses of the Miryang Toero-ri Lee clan, the Sancheong Namsa-ri Choi clan, and Goseong Choi Pilgan (Table 3. ⑥, ⑧, ⑪). In these traditional houses, a nae-oe-dam was built inside the middle gate (jungmun) to block both the view of the an-chae and access to it. Notably, the old houses of Sancheong Namsa-ri Choi clan and Goseong Choi Pilgan have a “ㄱ”-shaped nae-oe-dam to block the view from the front and sides, and the wall naturally guides the entrance. The historical house of the Miryang Toero-ri Lee clan features a passageway that curves in the shape of “ㄱ” after passing through the an-jungmun, obscuring the view of the an-madang, while the front of the an-chae is further shielded by a “ㅡ”-shaped nae-oe-dam. This type of nae-oe-dam built in the an-madang was usually placed at the entrance to the an-madang so as to directly block the view of the an-chae.
Nae-oe-dams erected in the haengrang-madang (servants’ quarters courtyard)
There were seven places where a nae-oe-dam was built in the haengrang-madang, representing the majority of those studied; these included the historic houses of the Uiryeong Deokgyo-ri Kang clan, the Geochang Hwangsan-ri Sin clan, the Miryang Cheongun-ri Ahn clan, and the Sancheong Dangye-ri Gwon clan; and Geochang Seogan-soru, Miryang Seogo-jeongsa, and Miryang Sameun-jeong (Table 3. ①, ②, ⑦, ⑨, ⑫, ⑮, ⑯).
In the old houses of the Uiryeong Deokgyo-ri Kang clan and the Miryang Cheongun-ri Ahn clan, the difference in status between the nobles and their servants separated their living quarters and prevented them from seeing each other’s lives. The historic house of the Sancheong Dangye-ri Gwon clan, and the Seogo-jeongsa and Sameun-jeong in Miryang has a nae-oe-dam installed inside the main gate to block outsiders’ view of the sarang-chae and to serve as a route. Meanwhile, Miryang Seogo-jeongsa and Sameunjeong, which are types of annexes, have a separate nae-oedam between the butler’s space and the main buildings (sarang-chaes), with a side gate for access. Since the butler’s space, which had separate administrative and support functions, served as a haeng-nang (servant’s quarters; Lee and Roh, 2013), the nae-oe-dam built at the entrance to the annex was likely erected to block the view for the privacy of the residents of the main building.
There were two places where walls were erected to conceal the toilets in the haengrang-madang: the old house of the Geochang Hwangsan-ri Sin clan and Seogan-soru. A haengrang-madang is a space that includes the servants’ quarters and men’s toilets, situated adjacent to the sarang-madang. It serves as a boundary, separating the area occupied by the owner in the sarang-chae from that of the servants in the haengrang-chae. Since a haengrang-madang also has a main gate, it is frequently accessed by outsiders, and a nae-oe-dam was thus installed to protect the privacy of the sarang-chae residents.
Nae-oe-dams built in the backyard
The place where nae-oe-dams were installed in the backyard was the Goseong Park Jinsa’s historic house (Table 3. ⑬). A nae-oe-dam was erected at the entrance to the kitchen garden overlooking the an-madang, blocking the view of the an-chae and separating the area. The traditional house has nae-oe-dams installed in two places: the sarang-madang and the backyard.
The form and type of nae-oe-dams
Nae-oe-dams were typically installed in the shape of a “ㅡ” or “ㄱ,” with their design reflecting the function of the space in which they were placed.
The height of nae-oe-dams was found to be greatest in sarang-madangs. To block the view of visitors or outsiders from the sarang-chae toward the an-chae, the nae-oe-dams in sarang-madangs were built higher. It was found that the nae-oe-dam of the old house of the Goseong Jangsan-ri Heo clan stood at a height of 310 cm, the tallest among them. Given that the standard for visual shielding is around 180 cm, the wall of the house provides a very strong visual barrier. The Heo clan’s traditional house was built in a modern style for its time under the influence of modern Japanese style, but it seems that the space for women followed the Confucian customs of the Joseon period (Table 3. ③). There a re three places where the height of the nae-oe-dam (wall) installed in the sarang-madang is 2m or more, and these include the old houses of Goseong Park Jinsa and the Goseong Songgye-ri Lee clan as well as the Goseong Jangsan-ri Heo clan (Table 3. ⑩, ⑬). These houses were built or expanded from the late Joseon period to the Japanese colonial period, and have the common characteristic of being constructed in the same area around the same time.
There are three historic houses where a nae-oe-dam was built in the an-madang (an-chae courtyard), positioned inside the middle gate, effectively blocking the view of the an-chae. Upon entering the courtyard, one is immediately confronted by the wall, which stands over 2 m high, creating an overwhelming presence. Of the three, the highest wall was found to be at the house of Goseong Choi Pilgan, with a height of 270cm, followed by those of the Sancheong Namsa-ri Choi clan (220cm) and the Miryang Toero-ri Lee clan (215 cm) (Table 3. ⑥, ⑧, ⑪).
The specific height of the nae-oe-dam in the haen-grang-madang is recorded in the Jeonghun of Choryeo Lee Yu-tae (Lee, 2006). He states, “Install a partition wall next to the sarang-chae, but make it so high that when sitting in the room, the horse’s stomach cannot be seen.” This implies the appropriate height for the nae-oe-dam, which serves to shield the stables in the haengrang-madang. The wall of the Geochang Hwangsan-ri Sin clan’s old house, installed to shield the toilet—a facility considered unpleasant— along with the stables, stands at a height of 270 cm, creating a visually enclosed atmosphere (Table 3. ②). The nae-oe-dam of Uiryeong Deokgyo-ri Kang clan’s traditional house is 210 cm high, blocking the view from the opposite sarang-chae (Table 3. ①). The nae-oe-dam of the Miryang Cheongun-ri Ahn clan’s old house stands 195–200 cm high and was constructed to such a height that the eaves of the servants’ quarters were not visible (Kim, 1997). It is currently in a state of destruction. According to a descendant, Ahn Chung-hwan, the wall collapsed about 30 years ago, and the KHS later determined that its restoration would be futile, leading to its demolition. The Ahn clan’s wall is the only destroyed site among those surveyed (Table 3. ⑦). The only place where a nae-oe-dam is installed in the backyard is the old house of Goseong Park Jinsa, which is 170 cm high and 170 cm long.
A relatively high nae-oe-dam in the haengrang-madang seems to be due to the characteristics of the space adjacent to the sarang-chae; this design was crucial to blocking the view and effectively separating the nobles’ and servants’ spaces. Given that walls in most houses, except for those in castles and palaces, are typically no higher than a person (Kim, 2007), and are generally constructed to a modest, human-like height to define boundaries, nae-oe-dams seem to have been built taller than regular walls.
The longest nae-oe-dam is found at the Miryang Cheongun-ri Ahn clan’s house, measuring 1,220 cm, while the shortest is at the Goseong Songgye-ri Lee clan’s house, at just 100 cm (Table 3. ⑦, ⑩).
Nae-oe-dams were typically made of earth and stone, with such toseok-dams being the most common type. However, in the historical houses of the Geochang Hwangsan-ri Sin clan and the Goseong Jangsan-ri Heo clan, and Goseong Choi Pilgan’s, roof tiles (broken pieces) were used to create patterns on the walls, or holes were made in them to facilitate communication between the inside and outside (Table 3. ②, ③, ⑪). It was common for nae-oe-dams to have tiled roofs; however, it is said that the house of the Miryang Cheongun-ri Ahn clan once had walls with thatched roofs, while the house of the Miryang Dajuk-ri Son clan had walls with Japanese-style tiled roofs (Table 3. ④, ⑦).
The installation of nae-oe-dams was found to follow three types: the orthogonal type, built by attaching to an existing wall; the extended type, constructed by adding to the end of an existing wall; and the stand-alone type, installed independently (Table 4). Among them, orthogonal nae-oe-dams were constructed in the following locations: the sarangmadang of the old houses of the Goseong Jangsan-ri Heo clan, the Miryang Danjang-myeon Heo clan, and the Goseong Songgye-ri Lee clan (Table 3. ③, ⑤, ⑩); the an-madang of the old houses of the Miryang Toero-ri Lee clan, the Sancheong Namsa-ri Choi clan, and Goseong Choi Pilgan (Table 3. ⑥, ⑧, ⑪); and the haengrang-madang of the old houses of the Uiryeong Deokgyo-ri Kang clan, the Miryang Cheongun-ri Ahn clan, the Seogan-soru in Geochang, and the Seogo-jeongsa and Sameun-jeong in Miryang (Table 3. ①, ⑦, ⑫, ⑮, ⑯).
Stand-alone nae-oe-dams were installed in the old houses of the Geochang Hwangsan-ri Sin clan and the Sancheong Dange-ri Kwon clan (Table 3. ②, ⑨). In the Sin clan’s house, the stand-alone nae-oe-dam was created as a flower wall, designed to enhance the view from the sarang-chae on the opposite side. In the Kwon clan’s house, the wall was placed in the haengrang-madang to shield the sarang-chae, which is directly visible from the main gate, thus blocking the view of outsiders and guiding the route.
Extended nae-oe-dams were installed in three locations: the old houses of the Miryang Dajuk-ri Son clan and Goseong Park Jinsa, and Jinju Lee Sehoo’s head house (Table 3. ④, ⑬, ⑭). These walls were built by connecting the ends of existing walls to form long ‘ㅡ’ or ‘ㄱ’ shapes, thereby serving the function of nae-oe-dams.
Both orthogonal and extended walls are suitable for spaces where constructing a stand-alone nae-oe-dam is challenging, as they can be easily attached to existing walls or connected to block views. Stand-alone walls, on the other hand, are valued for their aesthetic appeal in the landscape, while also effectively blocking views and guiding traffic flow.
Nae-oe-dams were also used as garden elements by attaching planters to them. These include the old houses of Geochang Hwangsan-ri Sin clan, Goseong Jangsan-ri Heo clan, Miryang Danjang-myeon Heo clan, Sancheong Namsa-ri Choi clan, Miryang Toero-ri Lee clan, Goseong Park Jinsa, and Goseong Choi Pilgan; and the head house of Jinju Lee Sehoo (Table 3. ②, ③, ⑤, ⑥, ⑧, ⑪, ⑬, ⑭).
The nae-oe-dam of the Geochang Hwangsan-ri Sin clan features a flower wall adorned with a lotus pattern using roof tiles. The flower bed in front of the sarang-chae is connected to the wall, where vines were placed, creating a harmonious connection between the wall and the plants. The nae-oe-dam of the Goseong Jangsan-ri Heo clan has wildflowers planted near the an-jungmun, with the garden of the sarang-madang seamlessly connecting to the wall around the sarang-chae. The nae-oe-dam of the Miryang Danjang-myeon Heo clan is also connected to a flower bed in front of the sarang-chae, where tall trees are planted. The old house of the Sancheong Namsa-ri Choi clan has shrubs and wildflowers planted around the “ㄱ”-shaped nae-oe-dam at the middle gate (jungmun). According to a descendant, Choi Jun-seok (63 years old), these plants have been planted for generations, with the types changing slightly over time to reflect the tastes of the head of the household. Lee Gyu-seok (81), a descendant of Lee Sehoo, recalls that until 30 or 40 years ago, the head house had an oval pond, about 3–4 meters in diameter, located near the flower bed of the nae-oe-dam. Tall trees were planted by the pond. However, he says that the great-great-grandson cut down the trees and filled in the pond because of management difficulties. The stump of the cut trees had a root diameter of about 40 cm, adding that these trees were planted when the annex area was created in 1933. The inner sarang-chae, used as an annex, receives many visitors, so a nae-oe-dam was constructed to block the view of the an-chae. By creating a garden just around this wall, the landscape was enhanced and the screening effect of the trees was added. Currently, a Japanese-style garden has been created in the courtyard of the annex.
The old house of Goseong Choi Pilgan features plants set against the backdrop of a “ㄱ”-shaped nae-oe-dam inside the middle gate, with the chimneys arranged like landscape elements, all of which is used as a garden. According to a descendant, Choi Young-deok (74), a planter has long been placed along the wall, with only slight changes in the types of plants over the generations. He said that holes were made in this nae-oe-dam with convex tiles at eye level to look out or for communication between the inside and outside. In the old house of the Miryang Toero-ri Lee clan, plants were once grown in the planter at a nae-oe-dam. However, the descendants now use it as a vegetable garden, planting some herbaceous flowers. This wall was erected in front of the an-chae, with holes designed to allow a view of the outside. In the old house of Gosung Park Jinsa, a flower bed added to the nae-oe-dam at the entrance to the backyard vegetable patch serves as a garden element, with shrubs and wild herbaceous flowers planted there.
Landscape characteristics of Nae-oe-dams
Functional characteristics
Nae-oe-dams were installed in the sarang-madang, an-madang, haengrang-madang, and backyard of traditional Korean houses, with the highest rate of installation in the haengrang-madang. The purpose of installing nae-oe-dams in the houses can be broadly classified into four categories: blocking the view of outsiders, dividing spaces, guiding movement, and shielding toilets. Among these, the primary function appears to be blocking the view of outsiders. The functions of nae-oe-dams, based on their locations within the house, are summarized in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, and Table 5.
The haengrang-madangs are situated adjacent to the sarang-madangs, making the division of space according to Confucian hierarchy significant. Nae-oe-dams built in haengrang-madangs play a key role in blocking the view of the sarang-chae, the main building of traditional houses, or vice versa. Nae-oe-dams built in sarang-madangs all serve to obstruct the view of the an-chae. Notably, the rate of installation of nae-oe-dams in sarang-madangs tends to be higher in houses that receive many visitors. Where a garden was created to block the view of outsiders toward the an-chae, a nae-oe-dam was additionally constructed, and the open space of the wall naturally became a pathway to the an-chae. When a nae-oe-dam was installed in the an-madang, its primary purpose was to directly shield the an-chae. The effect of blocking the view was further enhanced by placing the wall at the entrance to the an-madang or inside the middle gate. With the height of the nae-oe-dams in the an-madangs raised to 2 meters or more, houses that block the view up to the level of the eaves of the an-chae were mostly modern hanoks built or expanded in the late Joseon period (Jang, 2004). These nae-oe-dams were built higher to effectively block the view from the outside. While the walls obstructed the view of the anchae, they also allowed for observation of the outside, or communication through the holes made in them. The nae-oe-dams in the backyards were installed at the entrance to the vegetable patch to block the view and divide the area.
Form-related characteristics
The planar shapes of nae-oe-dams were predominantly “ㅡ”-shaped, in 14 places, and were “ㄱ”-shaped in 3 places, making the “ㅡ” shape the most common. The height of the walls was closely related to their location and function, resulting in significant variation. They were installed at varying heights, ranging from low enough to block the view to high enough to screen the eaves of buildings (Table 5).
The location in a house where higher nae-oe-dams were most commonly installed was the sarang-madang, followed by the an-madang. It appears that nae-oe-dams were placed high in the sarang-madang, an area often visited by outsiders, to block the view of the an-chae, the women’s living space. Moreover, high nae-oe-dams were placed at the entrance to an-madang, which women occupied, to ensure their privacy and to block the view even of insiders such as men or servants.
Meanwhile, the nae-oe-dams of traditional houses in Goseong were the highest of the research subjects, ranging from 230 to 310 cm. This placement provided both visual blockage and psychological pressure. These houses are modern hanok built during the Japanese colonial period after the opening of the country (1846; Jang, 2004), and they share the common characteristic of having been expanded or constructed around the same time. The hanok sarang-madang in this area had Japanese gardens and many visitors, making it important to consider that the view of outsiders was directed toward the an-chae. The coexistence within a single house of the modern Japanese garden, introduced to the sarang-madang, and the nae-oe-dam, a symbol of traditional Confucian ideas from the Joseon period, reflects a transitional characteristic of traditional houses. The an-chae, the women’s space, upholds Confucian customs by thoroughly blocking the view of outsiders, while the sarangchae, the men’s space, features a garden surrounding the nae-oe-dam and uses it as a space for social interaction.
Nae-oe-dams were typically constructed using earth and stone (known as toseok-dam in Korean), with tiled roofs. Some of these roofs were found to be made of Japanese tiles or thatch. In certain areas, decorative patterns were added to the walls to enhance the landscape, or small holes were made to allow minimal communication between the inside and outside.
Diversity of construction types
The nae-oe-dams installed in the Gyeongsangnam-do region can be categorized into three types: the “orthogonal type,” which is attached to an existing wall or foundation; the “extended type,” which is connected to the end of an existing wall; and the “stand-alone type,” which is built independently (Table 6). The orthogonal type was the most common, likely due to its efficiency in being attached to the existing wall closest to the area where the view needed to be blocked. Orthogonal nae-oe-dams were installed in two shapes: “ㅡ” and “ㄱ”. The extended type nae-oe-dams were constructed either by attaching to the end of an existing wall in a “ㅡ” shape or at a 90-degree angle. The stand-alone type nae-oe-dams were placed independently in locations where the view was to be blocked. These did not impact the surrounding space and were open on both sides, naturally guiding the movement line.
Landscape of planter-type nae-oe-dams
There is also a type that can be called a “planter-type nae-oe-dam,” which features a planter created around a nae-oe-dam. This type tends to serve a similar function to the wha-o (flower beds created around small earthen walls) found in traditional Korean gardens. They were mainly installed in the sarang-madang and an-madang. In a sarangmadang, the planter-type nae-oe-dam is often connected to an existing flower bed to enhance the overall garden design. Tall trees were typically planted along the edges of the nae-oe-dam, both to block views and to enhance the aesthetic appeal of the landscape. The nae-oe-dam in an anmadang was planted with shrubs and wildflowers to contrast with the high wall. This planting approach reflects the traditional practice in hanoks, where large trees are generally not placed in the center of the yard. The plant species identified at the planter-type nae-oe-dams in the study include: Acer palmatum, Campsis grandiflora, Magnolia kobus, Lagerstroemia indica, Viburnum opulus L. var. sargentii, Kerria japonica, Nandina domestica, Rhododendron pulchrum, Paeonia lactiflora, Hemerocallis fulva, and Chrysanthemum morifolium. The plants planted at this type of wall vary according to the tastes of the owners and changes in the housing space over time, and continue to this day.
As such, planter-type nae-oe-dams are noteworthy in terms of landscaping, as they not only serve their primary function as a wall but also introduce a garden element into everyday living spaces.
Conclusion
In this study, 82 traditional Korean houses (hanok) in Gyeongsangnam-do were surveyed, and 16 houses with nae-oe-dams were selected for a field survey. Based on the survey results, the functions and forms of nae-oe-dams were analyzed, and the following landscape characteristics were derived.
First, nae-oe-dams were primarily installed in modern hanoks built during the Japanese colonial period, following the opening of the country in 1846. This installation was influenced by the strengthened nae-oe-beop in the late Joseon period. The installed nae-oe-dams were found in 7 locations in the haengrang-madang, 6 in the sarang-madang, 3 in the an-madang, and 1 in the backyard. The haen-grang-madang, where nae-oe-dams were most commonly installed, was visually open to the main building (sarang-chae), with a high installation rate due to the presence of the main gate and toilets in the area. Contrary to the commonly understood definition, nae-oe-dams were found not only at the an-chae and sarang-chae but also at the main gate and toilets, and even entrances to the vegetable patch. Second, the primary purpose of installing nae-oedams in hanoks was to block the view of outsiders. Moreover, these walls served important functions such as dividing spaces, guiding movement, and concealing toilet facilities. Third, the height of nae-oe-dams was closely related to their intended purpose. To block views of the an-chae (women’s quarters), relatively high nae-oe-dams were installed in the sarang-madang and an-madang. Whereas, lower nae-oe-dams in front of the sarang-chae (men’s quarters) or at the visually open main gate were positioned to prevent the creation of an enclosed landscape. Fourth, nae-oe-dams were constructed as toseak-dams made of local soil and stones, and were also designed as flower walls to enhance the landscape. Additionally, tiles were used to create holes in the walls, allowing for communication between the inside and outside, while also serving as decorative elements. Fifth, the construction types of nae-oe-dams were found to be of three types: the orthogonal type, built in connection with an existing wall; the extended type, built at the end of an existing wall; and the stand-alone type, built independently. The planar shapes of nae-oe-dams were typically “ㅡ” or “ㄱ,” depending on the conditions of their connection to an existing wall. Sixth, the type of nae-oe-dam that includes a planter can be called a planter-type nae-oe-dam. This type not only dually blocks the view by planting vegetation, but also serves a landscaping purpose. The plants and chimneys placed in the planter indicate that such nae-oe-dams functioned both as shielding structure and as landscape features.
As such, the functions and forms of nae-oe-dams, examined in traditional houses in Gyeongsangnam-do, were found to possess landscape characteristics compared to typical walls. Originating from the nae-oe-beop of the Joseon period, nae-oe-dams continued to be built through the Japanese colonial period, and even during the process of modernization, the tradition of nae-oe-beop persisted in the housing space.
During the field survey, we encountered unfortunate situations, such as the demolition and deformation of the original form, due to a lack of recognition of the value of nae-oe-dams in the maintenance of traditional houses. It is expected that this study will raise awareness of the scenic value of nae-oe-dams and provide basic data for future cultural heritage management. However, this study has limitations, as the research subjects are limited to the Gyeongsangnam-do region, necessitating follow-up research on traditional houses in other areas.
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