Introduction
As ecotourism destinations, national parks and protected areas provide visitors with engaging experiences and contribute significantly to the preservation of nature (Eagles and McCool, 2002). Ecotourism and outdoor areas also offer cultural, scientific, and ecological values for present and future generations (Dawson, 2007). Much of the literature pertaining to ecotourism and outdoor recreation focuses on visitor experience and behaviors. For example, Prebensen et al. (2013) suggested that visitors’ motivation and expectations could be linked to the measurement of psychological, social, and behavioral dimensions of individuals’ experience. In ecotourism and outdoor recreation, some have argued that visitors’ peak experiences were prominent with regard to situational or environmental conditions (Quan and Wang, 2004).
Tourist experience is defined as a constant flow of thoughts and feelings during moments of consciousness through the complex psychological, sociological, and cognitive interaction processes (Carlson, 1997). In accordance with this definition, ecotourist experience has been defined as “a subjective phenomenon, which involves visitors’ experience of interacting with the nature at ecotourism sites.” This may help to understand the complex nature of tourist experience at pre-visit, onsite, and post-visit stages (Godovykh and Tasci, 2020; Sana et al., 2023). Referring to the nature of experience in natural environment settings, Williams and Harvey (2001) described some types of visitor experiences in forest environmental settings. The study results suggested that the specific natural environments affected the cognitive dimensions of fascination, novelty, and transcendence. Packer and Ballantyne (2016) also argued that visitor experience is not a psychological phenomenon, but includes activities, physical environments, service providers, other visitors, and other elements.
Visitor experiences in national parks and outdoor recreation settings depend on the visitors’ personal values, motivations, and attitudes (Bright, 2008; Xu and Chan, 2016). Hull and Michael (1995) focused on mood as the primary measure of the leisure state of the visits to nature places. McIntyre and Roggenbuck (1998) also reported the changing nature of recreation experiences during adventure activities in New Zealand. This study described key variables to explain the person-nature transaction, such as mood states, feelings of connection with nature, and perception of risk and competence. Similarly, several authors refer to experiences in nature as time spent in natural areas and specific aspects of the person-nature interaction (Keniger et al., 2013; Rupprecht, et al., 2016). For instance, Rupprecht et al. (2016) considered social, emotional and physical health benefits for individuals’ interactions with nature. It is assumed that three facets of tourist experiences (learning, enjoyment, and escape) seem to be important components in the context of national parks and ecotourism sites (Oh et al., 2007; Pearce, 2005). In this study, we defined ecotourist experience as overall psychological responses of perceptual and rational experience within the context of ecotourism sites, including national parks and other protected areas.
Visitor experiences in natural and protected areas are composed of several dimensions that have been investigated in personal, social, and environmental contexts. Previous studies have suggested that visitor experiences resulted from interaction between an individual and outdoor recreation settings (Cutler and Carmichael, 2010; Lee and Schafer, 2002; Weber and Anderson, 2010). McIntyre and Roggenbuck (1998) reported that the nature of outdoor recreation experiences had been changed during a black-water rafting trip through describing the person-nature transaction focusing on personal (mood states and perception of risk and competence) and environmental components (feelings of connection with nature). Similarly, Dawson (2007) measured the important dimensions of the human experience in wilderness areas. The results show that the dimensions of personal (i.e., personal experience, solitude, exploration, and remoteness), social (i.e., social experience and connections with other users), environmental (i.e., connections with nature and natural environment), and managerial conditions (i.e., remote travel skills) can affect visitors’ experiences and satisfaction in the wilderness areas. Seekamp et al. (2012) also surveyed 173 wilderness visitors and found personal, social and environmental factors of wilderness experiences. From this study indicated that a variety of personal (e.g., other visitors’ behaviors and seeing other visitors), social (e.g., cognitive and affective benefits), and environmental factors (e.g., natural features and biophysical conditions) determine the quality of wilderness experience. In addition, Sorakunnas (2020) explored the dimensions and drivers of national park experiences from the 1970s to the 2010s. This study highlighted that the multidimensional structure of park experiences formed the following themes, including nature (i.e., wildlife, aesthetics, and connection with nature), physical accomplishments (i.e., physical challenges, harsh environment, and challenging moments), personal sphere (i.e., fun, learning, and freedom), infrastructure, and social interaction.
Similar to psychological aspects of individuals’ experiences, Cutler and Carmichael (2010) reviews the various nature of visitor experiences which include a combination of social and physical factors as well as services and products. Packer and Ballantyne (2016) also provided a conceptual framework of visitor experiences as internal responses aroused by social and physical environments. This study demonstrated that being in natural environments leads to significantly more positive responses and reduction in negative responses. Additionally, Sana et al. (2023) stated that the components of ecotourists’ experiences used in previous studies can be divided into two categories such as experiencescape (i.e., ecotourists’ activities and park settings) and internal responses (i.e., authenticity, disorientation, consumption experience, and engagement). Extant literature suggested that the environmental stimuli from ecotourists’ activities and park settings can influence the ecotourists’ experience (Lemelin and Smale, 2006; Connell and Page, 2008), while the key perceptual responses of ecotourists include authenticity, disorientation, consumption experience, and engagement (Sana et al., 2023).
Consequently, empirical studies articulated that visitor experiences in natural environmental settings focus on personal components of visitor experiences as individual or emotional perceptions that interact with surrounding natural, social, and physical environments. Based on the literature, this study explored the main elements of visitor experiences, including personal, social, and environmental components in national parks and other protected areas.
Having good experiences are played an important role in improving visitors’ behaviors, such satisfaction and repeat visit intentions. It is widely recognized that the character of visitor satisfaction has been recognized as the behavioral result of cognitive and affective states (Uysal, 2003). Herrick and McDonald (1992) examined the importance of a setting dimension relative to behavioral-type dimensions for explaining differences in visitor satisfaction, including group behavior, perceived crowding, past experiences, use levels, and time waiting. Uysal (2003) also explored the components of satisfaction in outdoor recreation settings. The study results found that some expressive attributes are the essence of visitors’ experience and satisfaction, including facility, physical and environmental conditions. Recently, De Rojas and Camarero (2008) proposed a theoretical framework to explain the formation of visitor satisfaction from the relationship between cognitive and affective approach. The results revealed that both cognitive and affective responses are direct determinants of visitor satisfaction. In a similar vein, Agyeman et al. (2019) also investigated visitors’ perception of the quality of the attributes (i.e., the presence of species, the attractiveness of the landscape, and culture and natural settings) that contribute to visitor satisfaction in protected areas. The results indicated that culture and natural settings were found to be important attributes to the visitor satisfaction.
Within the context of natural environmental settings, proenvironmental behavior is defined as the type of behaviors that appreciate and preserve the natural environment (Iwata, 2001). It is a protective way of behavior that minimally change the availability of materials or energy from the environment or alter the structure and dynamics of ecosystem (Stern, 2000). In the study of visitors’ satisfaction and behavior in natural environmental settings, previous works have emphasized the effect of cognitive and affective determinants of visitor satisfaction (De Rojas and Camarero, 2008; Oliver et al., 1997; Phillips and Baumgartner, 2002), but do not consider personal, social, and environmental factors of visitor experiences and behavior simultaneously. A few researchers have studied ecotourists’ satisfaction and pro-environmental behavior in terms of wildlife interaction, solitude, emotional connection, and experience quality. According to Kang and Moscardo (2006), pro-environmental behavior is a consequence of environmental attitudes towards responsible tourist behaviors in the ecotourism destination. Rosa and Collado (2016) suggested positive relationships between direct experiences in nature and environmental attitudes and behaviors. The results of this study indicated that the association between experience in nature and pro-environmental behavior is complex. Obradovic et al. (2023) in the studies of pro-environmental behaviors found that memorable tourism experiences have had a significant impact on satisfaction and pro-environmental behaviors within the context of national parks.
While little is known about the measure of the complex nature of visitors’ experiences within context of ecotourism sites, it can exist uses a conceptual framework based on the phases of experience, the influences on experience, or outcomes of experience (Cutler and Carmichael, 2010). The conceptual framework describes the relationships among essential factors of the visitor experience, including internal elements (personal motivations, perceptions, emotion, memory, and satisfaction) and external elements (social aspects, physical aspects, products, and service) during tourist events (travel to site, on-site activity, and return travel). The role of personal aspects (based on motivation, expectations, memory, perceptions, emotions, knowledge, and self-identity) is seen as an important influential element in understanding tourists’ experiences and the overall evaluation of the trip (Packer and Ballantyne, 2016; Ryan, 2002; Selstad, 2007). Social aspects refer to the social influences which can be interpreted during tourist experiences including personal relationships, interactions with other tourists and personnel, and host/guest relationships (Cutler and Carmichael, 2010). Social aspects of the destination can lead to more positive evaluations of tourists’ experiences, levels of satisfaction and perceptions of quality (Mossberg, 2007; Selstad, 2007; Zhou et al., 2023). The overall evaluation of the trip can be affected by physical aspects such as physical settings, spatial characteristics, and geographical features (Cutler and Carmichael, 2010). Physical environment can affect tourist experience, and facilitate tourists’ activities, perceptions, and social interactions (Li et al., 2023; McCabe and Stokoe, 2004; Mossberg, 2007).
Based on the discussion above, this study aims to explore the nature of ecotourists’ experiences that interact with personal, social, and environmental conditions, and to examine its relationship with pro-environmental behavior in natural environmental settings (see Fig. 1). Research exploring the complex nature of ecotourist experiences help us to better understand pro-environmental behavior in ecotourism areas. This leads to the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1. Personal factor of ecotourist experience positively influences ecotourist satisfaction.
Hypothesis 2. Social factor of ecotourist experience positively influences ecotourist satisfaction.
Hypothesis 3. Environmental factor of ecotourist experience positively influences ecotourist satisfaction.
Hypothesis 4. Ecotourist satisfaction positively influences pro-environmental behavior.
Research Methods
Sampling
In order to explore the complex nature of ecotourist experiences and its relationship with pro-environmental behavior, the data were collected by the following ways, including pilot study and visitors. For the pilot study, 21 scholars and experts specializing in ecotourism and outdoor recreation were asked to list 24 initial items for each subscale of ecotourist experiences. The research team generated 24 initial items using an extensive literature review. Based on theoretical results from the prior studies, ecotourist experiences in this study include personal, social, and environmental factors that people perceive in different contexts. It is necessary to eliminate three items to maximize the reliabilities of the scale. One item (e.g., I am relaxed in stressful situations) was removed from the personal factor, another item (e.g., I am familiar with this area) from the social factor, and the other item (e.g., I think the natural environment is polluted) from environmental factor of ecotourist experiences due to low communalities (0.280, 0.320, and 0.384, respectively). According to MacCallum et al. (2001), all items in a factor model should have communalities of over 0.60 to justify performing a factor analysis with small sample sizes.
For visitors, a questionnaire survey was administered to 396 adults who visited Bukhansan national park in South Korea. As one of the most popular ecotourism destinations in South Korea, the national park provides various ecotourism activities that expand the range of visitors who connect with nature and become more appreciate of park’s natural and cultural values, including birdwatching, guided walks, education, nature/cultural heritage interpretation, and camping in designated areas. The research team introduced the purpose of the study to the respondents and then distributed the questionnaire along with study information to them at the park entrance. The respondents were asked to respond to the questionnaire voluntarily. After ten minutes, the research team collected the questionnaire. The convenience sampling method was utilized to produce a selection within the study population of visitors. The convenience sampling method is frequently used in social sciences where researchers have ready access to existing target populations (Golzar and Tajik, 2022). The list of 21 measurement items of ecotourist experiences was generated through the findings of Study 1 and a review of the related literature. Each item was rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale to identify three factors of ecotourist experiences (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree).
Instrumentation
The three factors of ecotourist experiences were measured using 21 items selected from previous research (Clark and Stankey, 1979; Dawson, 2007; Seekamp et al., 2012) with a 5-point Likert-type scale. Cronbach’s alpha is the most common estimate of internal consistency of items in the scale (Cronbach and Shavelson, 2004). Statisticians have argued that an alpha of 0.65 – 0.80 is considered “adequate” for a scale used in human dimensions research (DeVellis, 2003). The 21 items’ relation to ecotourist experiences in this study demonstrated satisfactory reliability with coefficient alpha scores of 0.925.
Visitor satisfaction was adapted from Oliver (1997) and Kim and Kim’s (2019) evaluative set of cumulative satisfaction measures using a 5-point Likert scale. The measurement items were designed to examine the degree to which the respondents were satisfied. The respondents were asked to respond to the following question, “I am satisfied with my visitation at a national park”.
Pro-environmental behavior was adapted from Wu et al. (2022), and Stern (2000). A 5-point Likert scale was used to measure ecotourists’ pro-environmental behavior. The examples of the item are “I will try my best to persuade my friends to protect the natural environment,” and “I would like to take part in cleaning up the nature.”
Data Analysis
The data analyses were conducted using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) 20.0 program. Descriptive analyses were calculated to identify the characteristics of the sample, including gender, education, age, and marriage status. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient scores were assessed to examine the reliability of ecotourist experiences. The validity of the measurement variables was examined through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with AMOS 20.0 program. CFA was used to determine how well the model fits the data for the measurement variable, and the model in CFA was utilized to explore the construct validity of the factor structure in the measurement variables (LaNasa et al., 2009; Thompson, 2004). Pearson’s correlation coefficients were analyzed to examine the relationships between independent variables. Path analysis was used to examine the contributions of ecotourist experiences to satisfaction and pro-environmental behavior. Path analysis is a powerful statistical technique that explains correlated techniques, measurement errors, and multiple latent indicators (Kline, 2010).
Results and Discussion
Socio-economic characteristics of visitors
The visitors were 49.2% female (N = 195) and 50.8% male (N = 201) adults. Twenty-four percent (23.7%) of the respondents were between the ages of 20 – 29, 24.7% were between the ages of 30 – 39, 27% were between the ages of 40–49, and 24.5% were between the ages of 50 – 59. Seven-five percent (74.8%) of the respondents had visited a national park two or three times in the previous year, 13.5% visited one or two times in a month, and 6.7% visited three or four times in a month, and 5% had not visited the park (Table 1).
Reliability and validity of the measurement variables
The overall fit of the measurement variables was assessed using absolute fit indices, including chi-square, goodness of fit index (GFI), adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI), comparative fit index (CFI), and root mean square residual (RMR). Absolute fit indices determine how well the proposed model fits the data (Hooper et al., 2008). According to Kline (2010), if a large value of chi-square indicates a poor fit of the model to the data, the relative or normed chi-square is used as an informal measure of fit index. The relative or normed chi-square less than 3.0 or 4.0 are accepted for a measurement model. GFI, AGFI, and CFI range from 0 to 1 and values of 0.90 or greater indicate well-fitting models. There is a good model fit if RMR is less than or equal to 0.05 (Schumacker and Lomax, 2004).
Based on Schumacker and Lomax’s (2004) recommendations, Table 2 shows that the ecotourist experience offers reasonable fit for the data and reveals the convergent validity characteristics of the measures (χ2 = 658.942, df = 183, p = .000; GFI = 0.910, AGFI = 0.905, CFI = 0.937, RMR = 0.036). In order to identify the discriminant validity of the measurement model, the average variance extracted (AVE) is greater than the shared variance estimate (i.e., square of the correlation) among the latent constructs (Farrell, 2010). The AVE estimate (0.547) was greater than the shared variance estimate (0.321), which means the measure had good discriminant validity (Farrell, 2010). Cronbach’s alpha is utilized to test the reliability of a multi-item scale and a measure of internal consistency. The acceptable range for Cronbach’s alpha is 0.70 (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994). The results for 21 items for ecotourist experiences demonstrated a high level of internal consistency (α = 0.925).
Relationships between the measurement variables
To identify multicollinearity between the measurement variables in path analysis, Pearson product correlation analysis was conducted to determine the relationship between mean scores of the variables. Multicollinearity is a condition that independent variables are highly correlated, with a correlation coefficient of 0.70 or greater (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2006). Pearson product correlation analysis was used to examine the relationship between independent variables. In Table 3, there were significant positive correlations between the variables. The mean scores related to personal factors (self-esteem) were positively correlated with personal factors (relaxation) (r = .627, p < .01), social factors (r = .544, p < .01), and environmental factors (r = .631, p < .01). The correlation coefficients among the variables in Table 4 ranged from 0.477 to 0.631. The results of Pearson correlation analysis in this study indicated that multicollinearity was not an issue with the coefficients of the magnitude based on Tabachnick and Fidell’s recommendations.
In order to examine the relationship among the ecotourist experience, satisfaction, and pro-environmental behavior, standardized parameter estimates were utilized when comparing direct effects on a given endogenous variable (Kline, 2010). According to Kline (2010), standardized coefficients with absolute values less than 0.10 may indicate a small effect size; with values around 0.30 may indicate a medium effect size; and with values exceeding 0.50 may indicate a large effect size. Results in Table 4 represented that ecotourist satisfaction had large effects on pro-environmental behavior. Personal factor of ecotourist experience (self-esteem) had medium effects on satisfaction. Both personal factor (relaxation) and social factor of ecotourist experience had small effects on satisfaction. Ecotourist satisfaction had large effects on pro-environmental behavior.
Based on the fit statistics in Table 4, the relationship between the measurement variables provides a relatively good fit to the data and verify the convergent validity of the measures (χ2 = 25.865, df = 4, p = .000; GFI = .979, AGFI = .931, CFI = .965, RMR = .024). Table 4 shows that the fit indices were an excellent between the model and the data on the basis of the GFI, CFI, NFI, and RMR. The AVE estimates (0.635) exceeded the shared variance estimates (0.301), indicating sufficient discriminant validity. Personal factor of ecotourist experience had significant effects on satisfaction. The path estimates for ecotourist experience (social and environmental factor) were also significant. Additionally, satisfaction had a significant effect on pro-environmental behavior for ecotourists. Thus, all hypotheses are accepted.
Theoretical implications
As part of an initial attempt to explore the potential model of ecotourist experiences, this study has demonstrated adequate discriminant and predictive validity. The examination of internal consistency and the CFA results of the scale reveals the satisfactory reliability and validity of the measurement model. Consistent with the previous studies (Borrie and Roggenbuck, 2001; Crilley et al., 2012), personal factors of ecotourist experience were one of the most significant components to explain visitor satisfaction. Crilley et al. (2012) found that visitors’ desire and attainment of perceived benefits associated with a recreation experience are stronger predictors of overall positive responses to the park visit. Similarly, Borrie and Roggenbuck (2001) reported that personal dimensions of environmental experiences (feelings, focus on self, solitude and others) revealed significant change from the three phases of the wilderness experience, including the entry, immersion, and the exit. This study has demonstrated the existence of sub-dimensions within the personal factors to ecotourism activity participation. Among the three dimensions of ecotourist experiences, personal factors were the most influential factor for explaining visitor satisfaction. The relaxed atmosphere and picturesque scenery help understand ecotourists understand the relationship between people and nature (Wu et al., 2022); they might take action to believe that national park landscape is part of the “self” towards nature through personal factor of ecotourist experience (self-esteem).
The relationship between social and environmental factors of ecotourist experience and satisfaction in national park settings was identified. Research findings provide evidence that similar conclusions might be drawn about focus on social and environmental dimensions of ecotourist experiences as significant factors of explaining visitor satisfaction. This is convergent with studies conducted by Keniger et al. (2013), who demonstrated strong evidence to suggest that interactions with nature can produce multiple beneficial effects, including psychological, cognitive and physiological benefits. Empirical investigations have identified the impact of social and environmental factors of tourist experience on variations in satisfaction. Social and environmental factors affecting tourism satisfaction are identified in natural environmental settings (Jarvis et al., 2016). A large body of research uses tourist satisfaction as a proxy for pro-environmental behavior in the ecotourism context. This is based on the notion that tourist satisfaction is a leading driver of pro-environmental behavior in natural environmental settings (Lin et al., 2022). It is thereby important to note that satisfied ecotourists are more likely to show environmentally responsible behavior (Kim and Thapa, 2018).
Practical implications
In an attempt to further the theoretical implications, a scale of ecotourist experiences advances the empirical study of visitor behavior by providing a measuring instrumentation that explores the three types of ecotourist experiences. Identifying the measurement scale would help ecotourism and outdoor recreation planners or practitioners to better consider what motivates visitors to participate in ecotourism sites. For instance, an understanding of visitors’ experiences is essential to launch planning initiative and is vital to eco-practitioners. Knowing what visitors experience may suggest strategies that can be utilized to enhance their behaviors.
Evidence of the relationships between the measurement variables implies that ecotourism and outdoor recreation planners may need to identify visitors’ experiences with more valuable insights into what motivates visitors to select eco-friendly destination. As environmental factor was the strongest predictor of satisfaction and pro-environmental behavior, ecotourism and outdoor recreation planners help potential visitors learn and value the importance of the natural environment. Moreover, a scale of ecotourist experiences appears to be useful for future research on visitor behavior in travel and tourism sectors. For example, the measurement scale can be utilized to identify why visitors participate in any ecotourism destination after the COVID-19 pandemic.
Monitoring ecotourists’ experiences with programs and services is important in maintaining sustainable tourism and outdoor recreation settings. The generation of constant longitudinal data is critical to improving and managing visitors’ experiences and behaviors in natural environmental settings. Another practical suggestion for enhancing ecotourist participation is to design more age-appropriate natural environments supported through social programs opportunities. Ecotourism and outdoor recreation planners or managers might consider providing various opportunities that are personally meaningful to activity participants.
Conclusion
Although visitors take part in a variety of activities and experiences in ecotourism and protected areas, there is limited empirical evidence to explain the process how to form visitor experiences in national parks and other protected areas. This study began with the aim of exploring the complex nature of ecotourist experience that can be linked to the measurement of personal, social, and environmental dimensions, and its relationship with pro-environmental behavior.
A list of 21 items of ecotourist experiences was developed directly from the results of the study. The study results present evidence that visitation in ecotourism sites has profound implications for enhancing visitor experiences through opportunities for personal, social, and environmental conditions. One of the most important findings is that the ecotourist experience scale shows acceptable measurement properties and reasonable levels of fit. The CFA results for visitors also serve as a reliable and valid foundation for the modifications and refinements (see Table 2). Three types of ecotourist experience are shown to have different effects on pro-environmental behavior through visitor satisfaction. The results states that personal, social, and environmental factors of ecotourist experience significantly affect pro-environmental behavior through satisfaction. That is, improving ecotourists’ experience with the nature interaction may be essential to provide satisfactory ecotourism activities.
The data were obtained from general adults using an onsite survey, and thus the generalizability of the measurement scales to other populations in ecotourism sites needs to be explored in future studies. The scale of ecotourist experiences might vary across different subjects, disabilities, youth, and older adults. In order to identify the validation of the scale of ecotourist experiences, future research should examine similarities between the measurement scale and its related variables, including environmental experiences. Another limitation of this study is that longitudinal and qualitative approaches might be used to provide an understanding of the structure of the measurement scale in more detail. Future research can examine other countries to validate a more stable scale of ecotourist experiences and its relationships with satisfaction and pro-environmental behavior.
The dynamics of ecotourist experiences may change across time. The present study has allowed further testing of the concept of ecotourist experiences at different stages of the destination decision-making process. Despite the limitations, this study is an initial trial of the ecotourist experiences and demonstrates its psychometric properties. Additionally, the results of the study provide primary evidence supporting the value of using the new instrument as well as its relevance to applied research in investigating visitor experience and behavior in natural environmental settings. Among other ecotourism sites, the ecotourists’ experiences and behaviors were measured by structures under natural settings. The ecotourists’ experiences and behaviors of the man-made structures could have been different from those sites in natural environmental settings.
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