Introduction
Plastic waste, particularly ocean plastic waste, is a pressing global environmental issue that the world is urgently working to address. Plastic waste worldwide has surged dramatically from 2 million tons per year in 1950 to 381 million tons in 2015 (Ritchie and Roser, 2018). In 2010, approximately 275 million tons of plastic waste were produced by 192 countries, with an estimated 4.8 to 12 million tons ending up in the seas and oceans (Jambeck et al., 2015).
Vietnam, with its extensive coastline, ranks among the top countries for plastic waste discharge into the sea. According to a report by Jambeck et al. (2015) on the amount of plastic waste transitioning from land to sea, Vietnam was ranked 4th in 2010. It is estimated that Vietnam discharged between 0.28 and 0.73 million tons of plastic waste into the ocean that year. The report also highlights that although Vietnam's per capita waste generation average is 0.79 kg per person per day, 88% of this waste is poorly managed. Furthermore, plastic constitutes a significant portion of the mismanaged waste, accounting for 13%. This high rate of poorly managed plastic waste is key to Vietnam's large contribution to ocean plastic pollution.
According to Vu (2020), Vietnam's seas continue to face significant waste issues, with numerous plastic bags floating on beaches, especially those frequented by tourists, indicating a concerning level of coastal plastic pollution. The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) reported in the 2019 National Environmental Status Report that Vietnam lacks specific statistical data on plastic waste collection rates, instead providing statistics on solid waste collection rates, which include plastic waste. The report notes that the average proportion of plastic waste in landfills is about 6–8% (Vu, 2020). The Ministry has identified that a substantial amount of plastic waste is poorly managed, often ending up in rivers and subsequently flowing into the sea. This has led to increasing plastic pollution in coastal areas and beach resorts.
This research examines the multi-stakeholder governance approach towards reducing marine plastic waste in Hoi An coastal city, Vietnam. The study explores the roles and interactions of key stakeholders, including government agencies, local communities, businessmen, scientists and international agencies, in addressing marine plastic pollution. It was carried out in Hoi An, a coastal city in Quang Nam province, central Vietnam. Covering a natural area of 61.48 km2, Hoi An is situated on the northern bank of the lower Thu Bon River.
Hoi An City (Fig. 1) is renowned as a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site, a status it received in 1999 and Cu Lao Cham-Hoi An Biosphere Reserve in 2009. The city, established in the latter half of the 16th century, originated as a river- and seaport that attracted global traders. This historical evolution fostered a unique, open culture that can serve as a foundation for promoting environmental behavior change (Pham, 2021). The UNESCO designation also draws many domestic and international organizations to implement environmental programs, which help increase environmental awareness among residents. Additionally, a marine protected area program was established in Cu Lao Cham, featuring numerous training courses on environmental awareness and behavior modification. According to Chu (2011), programs like "Say No to Plastic Bags" and solid waste classification have been successful in Cu Lao Cham.
This flow section will explain the conceptual framework of multi-stakeholder governance by literature review, including the concept of governance, multi-stakeholder, and multi-stakeholder governance. The concept of governance is defined broadly as the system focusing on decision-making processes and actions aimed at achieving goals (Pham, 2021). It encompasses the processes and arrangements through which decisions are made and implemented, emphasizing that it refers not only to formal decision-making structures but also to actual practices and the exercise of power to influence decisions and their enforcement (Fisher, 2017). In the context of environmental governance, it emphasizes changing environmental incentives, knowledge, institutions, decision-making processes, and behaviors (Lemos and Agrawal, 2006). They describe environmental governance as the regulatory processes, mechanisms, and organizations through which political actors influence environmental actions and outcomes, involving state actors, communities, businesses, and NGOs.
The concept of multi-stakeholder is understood as the different actors working together to find a collective solution for certain problems (Dodds, 2015). Multi-stakeholder governance is a governance model that emphasizes coordinating various actors to achieve common goals they collectively pursue. This model is extensively employed by the United Nations to advance the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. Eweje et al. (2021) conducted research reviewing and proposing a conceptual framework for multi-actor governance.
Multi-agent governance entails leveraging diverse societal resources to engage in discussions, decision-making, and implementation aimed at addressing a problem (Abas and Wee, 2014). The principles of multi-actor governance encompass four crucial elements: participation, open discourse, collaboration, and pluralism (Thomas and Grindle, 1990). Research indicates that involving multiple stakeholders from the outset in problem-solving yields more objective and effective outcomes compared to traditional methods (Peterson, 2013). For instance, the application of multi-agent governance in implementing solid waste management policies in Malaysia has demonstrated improved results, prompting numerous studies to adopt multi-agent governance for sustainable solid waste management practices. Therefore, fostering joint participation and collaboration among societal human resources is pivotal in tackling challenges (Gibbon et al., 1994).
According to Pham (2021), adopting a co-management approach is crucial in developing a multi-stakeholder governance model. The study, conducted in Cu Lao Cham, employed qualitative methods to explore the perspectives and experiences of island residents, as well as the impacts of their actions. Interviews were conducted with a wide array of stakeholders, including local people, community leaders, government officials, marine reserve staff, researchers, NGO representatives, international agencies, and tourists. Since the establishment of the marine reserve, changes in environmental behavior have emerged due to the influence of five distinct marine conservation projects: restricted fishing areas, crab conservation efforts, plastic bag bans, solid waste sorting initiatives, and turtle rehabilitation programs. The study underscores the importance of developing a multi-agent management model for coastal areas to effectively address environmental challenges.
This research aims to create and evaluate a multi-stakeholder governance model for reducing ocean plastic waste. The model depends on the collaboration of diverse societal actors, such as governments, consumers, businesses, scientists, and international organizations, to collectively minimize ocean plastic pollution. The core value of this governance model is centred on achieving consensus on goals, ensuring coordinated decision-making, and effectively implementing socio-economic policies and activities. To accomplish this, the study examines the roles and interactions of key stakeholders, including government agencies, local communities, businesses, scientists, and international agencies, in addressing marine plastic pollution.
Research Method
This study utilized a mixed-methods approach combining interviews, policy analysis, and field observations to explore the challenges and opportunities in implementing sustainable waste management practices. The research spanned multiple periods: from August 2022 to February 2023, June 2023 to September 2023, and July – August 2024.
Qualitative data was collected through semi-structured interviews, centering around 10 pre-determined questions. The semi-structured interview questions provided flexibility, allowing for a more open and free-flowing conversation and enabling extra questions to be asked to dive deeper into the interviewee’s responses.
The initial list of interview participants was established based on the networks of the researchers. Purposive and snowball sampling were used to maximise understanding the actors’ perspectives. Snowball sampling was used to extend the initial list of interviewees. Participants were initially contacted via phone to arrange the time and locations. Interviews are arranged to be conducted in person or via Zoom at the participants’ convenience. Forty participants were contacted including government officials, business leaders, academic researchers, and representatives from international and local agencies.
After collection, the qualitative data was coded, grouped for analysis, and integrated into the framework. Responses were categorized into five themes. Theme 1 focuses on the current status of plastic waste in Vietnam over the past five years, including volume, composition, distribution, main sources, and ratios. Theme 2 delves into the state management efforts to minimize plastic usage to evaluate how relevant parties coordinate in Vietnam to reduce plastic consumption and assess the roles of individuals and businesses in this endeavor. Theme 3 explores state management efforts concerning the collection and transportation of plastic waste and how various parties coordinate in managing plastic waste collection and transportation, to assess the role of individuals and businesses in sorting plastic waste to support collection efforts. Theme 4 examines state management efforts regarding the treatment of plastic waste. They evaluate how different parties coordinate in managing the treatment of plastic waste, and assess the role of individuals and businesses in reusing, recycling, and other forms of personal plastic waste management. In theme 5, experts were asked to rate the effectiveness of the multi-agent governance model aimed at reducing ocean plastic waste on a 10-point scale (with 1 is being the lowest and 10 the highest).
Quantitative data was gathered through a questionnaire administered to random local people and visitors in Hoi An. The survey was conducted by a local research team who asked questions and recorded responses using an online platform. Participants who were able to complete the questionnaire online did so independently. A total of 203 volunteers participated in the survey. The survey focused on identifying factors that significantly influence 3R consumer behaviors: reducing consumption of plastic-containing products (reduce), reusing plastic items (reuse), and recycling plastic waste (recycle). It also aimed to provide recommendations for policy changes to encourage more conscientious use of plastic and reduce its environmental impact.
Results and Discussion
Hoi An is considered a green city free of plastic waste, admired by many both in Vietnam and around the world. Over 23 days (July 25th – August 18th, 2024), using the participant observation method, a research team conducted continuous surveys of the beaches in Hoi An (Cua Dai, An Bang, Cu Lao Cham), a 5-kilometre stretch a long the Thu Bon River near the estuary, coastal roads, the city center, and coral reefs around Cham Island. The results showed no floating plastic waste on land, rivers, seas, or coral reefs. According to the project coordinators of the WWF's ocean plastic waste project, Hoi An is the best at managing and reducing plastic waste within the conservation and biosphere reserve system. No other place in Vietnam does it better. They think that Hoi An has deeply embraced its many global titles, and everyone understands how preserving those titles impacts their livelihoods, including maintaining cleanliness for a beautiful green landscape (Interview ID 37, 2024).
The following section will outline how the government, local community, businesses, scientists, and international organizations have collaborated to achieve these results.
State Management
To have a comprehensive understanding of state management on plastic waste mitigation in Hoi An, qualitative interviews were conducted with diverse stakeholders, namely, government officials, business leaders, researchers, and representatives from international agencies. The results show that plastic waste is well managed through the proper waste management system in Hoi An which involves the coordination of various agencies and entities. The mechanism of operation and coordination is presented in Fig. 2.
In the governmental system, Hoi An City People's Committee (Hoi An PC), via the Department of Natural Resources and Environment – DONRE, firstly is primarily responsible for waste management, planning, and coordinating environmental protection activities. Second, commune Level People’s Committees are responsible for organizing waste collection activities in residential areas. Third, Hoi An Public Service Company is responsible for conducting the collection, transportation, and treatment of domestic and industrial waste and coordinating with DONRE, the commune-level People's Committee, residential communities, and representatives of residential areas in determining the time, location, frequency, and collection routes. It also has the right to refuse collection for households that do not classify waste.
The supportive system involves self-managed groups, international organizations and waste sources. First, self-managed groups are formed by the community based on individual volunteers and have the main task of collecting household waste from residential areas that are not accessible by the collection trucks of the Hoi An Public Service Company. Officer, Management Unit of Cham Islands Marine Protected Area stated, “Given Hoi An's numerous small streets and pedestrian areas, self-managed groups play a vital role in the city's waste management system, as without their support, a considerable amount of waste would remain uncollected.” (Interview ID 08, 2023). Currently, there are many self-managed groups collecting waste locally with operational programs approved by the commune-level People's Committees. They are paid from the waste collection fees from households. Moreover, Hoi An has a team of about 94 local scrap buyers and 7 owners of scrap collection facilities who participate daily in the collection and preliminary processing of recyclable waste within Hoi An City. Second, International Organizations (IOs) and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) support Hoi An PC in raising the community’s awareness about environmental protection and assisting projects and programs related to waste management and waste segregation at source. Third, private businesses implement measures to reduce, recycle, and dispose of waste generated from their production activities. Residents participate in waste segregation at the source and practice environmental protection as guided by the relevant authorities.
The supportive system is well aligned with Ansell and Torfin’s governance concept as empowering non-governmental sectors and civil stakeholders through self-regulation processes, describing it as the interactive processes steering society and the economy toward collectively negotiated objectives (Ansell and Torfing, 2016).
As a UNESCO World Heritage site, Hoi An government has also generated efforts to join the world in reducing plastic usage by issuing several policies and regulations which were highlighted by Hoi An government officials and researchers during the interview. Directive 15-CT/TU dated November 12, 2019, of the Hoi An Party Committee on strengthening and minimizing the use of single-use plastic products and non-degradable plastic bags; continuing to implement the policy of waste segregation at the source to protect the city's environment. Following Directive 15-CT/TU, the Hoi An People’s Committee issued Action Plan No. 613/CTHD-UBND dated March 9, 2020, on minimizing the use of single-use plastic products and non-degradable plastic bags; continuing the policy of waste segregation at the source to protect the environment of Hoi An city. Plan No. 801/KH-UBND dated April 7, 2021, of the Hoi An People's Committee on implementing solutions to minimize the use of plastic bags and single-use plastic products; improving the efficiency of waste reduction, classification, and treatment at the source to protect the city's environment in 2021. For Cu Lao Cham - Hoi An World Biosphere Reserve, Hoi An People’s Committee issued Decision No. 04/2015/QD-UBND dated May 25, 2015, on promulgating the management regulations of the Cu Lao Cham - Hoi An World Biosphere Reserve”. Participants ID 01 and ID 02 commented, “these policies and regulations reinforce Hoi An's strong commitment to effective waste management and the reduction of plastic waste.” (Interview ID 01&02, Government sector, 2023)
One of the key initiatives that was highlighted by the Hoi An government official and representatives from international organizations is the "Source to Sea (S2S)" program, which aims to tackle plastic waste from its source in the city to its impact on the marine environment. This program focused on supporting local authorities and stakeholders in Hoi An in developing a five-year environment strategy and enhancing coordination along the plastic waste value chain (Ruth et al., 2023; Jose, 2021).
The results show that effective collaboration among stakeholders contributed to the annual solid waste reduction in Hoi An City from 2019 to 2022 (Fig. 3). However, Pham (2023) “suggested that imposing strict penalties for inappropriate disposal and increasing the price of SUP plastics may be the most effective ways to reduce SUP plastic waste at its sources”.
Community participation
Fisher (2017) argues that governance should shift from centralized to decentralized models, emphasizing the transfer of power from central governments to local stakeholders, including communities through community-based management initiatives. In Hoi An, government officials and local businesses highlighted that Hoi An has launched a campaign to encourage local businesses to reduce plastic usage, particularly within the tourism and hospitality sectors. This campaign has led to a significant reduction in the use of single-use plastics, such as straws and cups, in restaurants and hotels across the city (Fig. 4).. A business leader remarked, "Driven by both government incentives and increasing consumer demand for sustainable options, many businesses have transitioned to eco-friendly alternatives” (Interview ID 09, Business sector, 2023).
At the personal behavior level, participants reported strong engagement with the 3R behaviors (recycling, reducing, and reusing), attributing this to traditional Vietnamese practices, such as selling recyclables and reusing food containers. Survey results show a clear preference for avoiding plastic bags when shopping at supermarkets, markets, and food stores. More than half of the participants (99 individuals) regularly opt for non-plastic alternatives. However, a notable portion (67 participants) expressed neutrality towards plastic-free options, showing neither a strong preference nor aversion. A smaller group of 42 participants reported that they rarely or only sometimes avoid reducing plastic use. Most people share that avoiding plastic bags has been an ongoing practice in the area, and they usually bring their baskets or reuse old newspapers and leaves to wrap food.
The success in reducing plastic waste can be attributed to strong community involvement, which has significantly contributed to a more sustainable environment. This finding aligns with Barudin et al. (2021), who highlights the role of community participation in preventing plastic waste from entering the ocean and emphasizes the need for local initiatives on this global issue.
Despite the growing awareness of the need to reduce plastic waste, a significant majority (152 people), accounting for two-thirds of the participants, expressed concern over the lack of convenient plastic waste collection facilities (Fig. 5). They strongly advocated for the government to provide more information about existing facilities and their locations. Additionally, 36 participants agreed with this view, and only 13 remained neutral. These findings align with Browning et al. (2021), who emphasized that insufficient infrastructure for plastic waste collection hampers the ability to maintain sustainable practices in developing countries. This result underscores the need for clearer communication from the government regarding these services, as well as the establishment of more visible and accessible plastic collection facilities for residents.
Market-driven force
A market-driven capitalist approach is highlighted in the governance guidelines from the UN Environment (2019). According to UN Environment (p.15), economic incentives leveraging property rights and market mechanisms should be more emphasized to achieve good governance.
The market-driven forces behind plastic waste mitigation in Hoi An were highlighted by Pham (2023) who identified the cost of plastics as the most significant factor influencing single-use plastic (SUP) consumption behavior. When plastic is perceived as more affordable than alternative materials, people tend to use more plastic products. In lower-middle-income countries like Vietnam, economic advantage remains a priority in daily consumption. This suggests that raising the cost of plastics could help reduce their usage. For example, separating the price of single-use plastic bags from the product price could encourage consumers to forgo the bags to save money.
Additionally, increasing the cost of plastic packaging for businesses and manufacturers is crucial, as it plays a key role in reducing plastic waste at its source. There are two ways to increase the cost of plastic: first, by raising the environmental tax on SUPs for both producers and consumers; and second, by lowering the costs of alternative materials to make them more economically competitive with plastics. The Vietnamese government could consider supporting the production of alternative materials to help reduce manufacturing costs.
Scientific and international support
Science plays a crucial role in supporting Hoi An's plastic waste mitigation efforts by providing evidence-based insights and strategic frameworks necessary for effective waste management. Through detailed research and analysis, scientists can identify the primary sources and impacts of plastic waste, enabling the development of targeted interventions. Furthermore, scientific studies on community behavior and waste management practices inform educational campaigns and policy-making, ensuring that initiatives are not only effective but also culturally viable. By leveraging scientific knowledge, Hoi An can implement comprehensive and sustainable strategies to significantly reduce plastic waste, protect its unique coastal environment, and enhance the quality of life for its residents and visitors.
Hoang et al. (2017) analyzes the generation and composition of municipal waste in Hoi An, with a particular focus on the differences between household and tourism-related waste. The study finds that tourism significantly increases the volume of waste, particularly plastic waste, in the city. It highlights the need for improved waste management systems to handle the increased waste during peak tourist seasons. The research suggests that implementing stricter regulations on waste disposal for businesses, especially in the tourism sector, and promoting waste reduction practices among tourists can help mitigate the environmental impact of plastic waste. In addition, other studies including Kieu et al. (2020) and Pham et al. (2023) further reinforce the contribution of scientific support on Hoi An plastic waste mitigation.
International cooperation in the field of environmental protection, including waste management in Hoi An has expanded over the years, helping to mobilize support from both domestic and international organizations for the implementation of environmental protection projects, climate change response, and disaster prevention. Participant ID 07 highlights “After more than 10 years of implementing the 'no plastic waste' initiative, Cham islands is now becoming a model for other island communes across the country. To achieve this, in addition to appropriate government policies, support from IOs and NGOs is crucial. Their expertise and resources have been instrumental in scaling up sustainable practices and ensuring long-term success.” (Interview ID 07, Local agency, 2023). The international cooperation programs in Hoi An mainly involve the government of Japan, the Federal Republic of Germany, and the Republic of France, as well as international organizations and NGOs, such as the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), among others (Huynh, 2023).
Several international cooperation projects supporting waste management including plastic waste mitigation have been implemented in Hoi An from 2009 to 2022 (Huynh, 2023), such as: The "Waste Reduction Program Following the Naha Model in Hoi An" is a flagship project under the "Development Partnership Cooperation" initiative. Funded by JICA, this project encourages Japanese citizens to participate in international cooperation using ODA funds to transfer technology and share experiences. The project is implemented by the city of Naha from Okinawa in all 13 communes and wards of Hoi An, drawing on Naha's expertise in waste reduction and environmentally conscious tourism. The project has three phases: Phase 1 and 2 (April 2008 – March 2011 and August 2012 – July 2015) aimed at citizens, focused on waste segregation awareness, training workshops, and creating environmental education for schools. Key goals included executing a city-wide waste segregation plan, distributing waste segregation handbooks to households, and conducting waste composition surveys. Phase 3 (March 2016 – March 2019) targeted businesses, providing training on waste segregation and compiling the "White Book on Waste" to clarify environmental status. It also included training sessions and experience exchanges businesses for local officials and businesses in Japan. The project has successfully promoted the 3R (Reduce - Recycle - Reuse) model in Hoi An, maintaining ongoing waste reduction initiatives modelled after Naha, Japan.
In 2011, Hoi An launched the project "Developing a Socialized Model for Household Waste Management in Hoi An City" with funding from the GEF to partially meet the long-term goals of Hoi An City's waste management strategy. It aims to enhance the efficiency of household waste management, environmental protection, and sustainable development of world culture. Within the framework of the project, many training and awareness-raising classes on waste segregation were organized. The project has mobilized the participation of organizations and individuals, enhancing household waste management capacity for communes in Hoi An City. Additionally, through direct support from the project, poor and disadvantaged households involved in scrap purchasing were provided with loans, harmonizing economic benefits with environmental protection. This initiative has significantly reduced landfill waste by over 70%, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and supporting global climate change efforts.
From 2020 to 2024, the "Ocean Plastic Waste Reduction" project, funded by the WWF for Nature and approved by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, is being implemented in 10 provinces and cities in Vietnam, including Hoi An's Cu Lao Cham Marine Protected Area. With a budget of approximately 9.8 million EUR in non-refundable aid, the project's overarching goal is to reduce ocean plastic pollution in Vietnam. This is achieved through the development of guidelines for implementing plastic waste policies and capacity-building communication activities to support the National Action Plan on ocean plastic waste management until 2030. Since the project's inception in 2020, it has fostered collaboration and participation from various stakeholders, organizations, and communities in Cu Lao Cham. Several recycling and waste reduction models have been established, such as the Resource Recovery Facility, Ocean Plastic Waste Collection, Zero Waste Schools, and beach and seabed waste monitoring programs. These initiatives have successfully processed a significant amount of waste, including converting approximately 15 tons of organic waste into compost and multi-purpose cleaning agents and recycling nearly 1 ton of plastic waste. Additionally, over 90% of Cu Lao Cham residents have participated in training and communication activities on household waste reduction and management.
In addition to these initiatives, other projects include the "Enhancing Urban Solid Waste Management to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Vietnam" funded by FMC and the "Zero Waste Model Development in Cu Lao Cham and Cam Thanh" funded by USAID. These projects further contribute to the comprehensive efforts in waste management and environmental protection in Hoi An (Huynh, 2023).
These projects demonstrate that international and scientific perspectives and activities greatly contribute to plastic governance in Hoi An. This aligns with Nye and Donahue (2000), who expand the scope of governance to include international organizations, defining it as the processes and institutions involving collective activities guided by governments, the private sector, and international organizations at multiple levels.
The model of Multi-stakeholder governance towards mitigating marine plastic waste
Ansell and Gash (2007) define collaborative governance as a formal, consensus-oriented, and deliberative decision-making process where public agencies directly engage non-state stakeholders to make or implement public policies or manage public programs or assets. It transfers to be a Multi-stakeholder partnership (Eweje et al., 2020) including government, business, community, NGO and academic sectors. The Multi-stakeholder governance towards mitigating marine plastic waste in this study was identified and discussed in sections 3.1 – 3.4.
In addition, experts were asked to evaluate the effectiveness of the multi-agent governance model in reducing ocean plastic waste, using a 10-point scale to provide their assessments. This model integrates various sectors, including state management, community participation, scientific and international support, and market-driven force, to create a comprehensive approach to addressing ocean plastic pollution. The qualitative data revealed a range of perspectives on the effectiveness of this model, with scores varying from 5 to 8, reflecting the diverse experiences and insights of the experts involved.
Some experts praised the collaborative nature of the governance model, highlighting how the interplay between different stakeholders has led to significant progress in reducing ocean plastic waste. They pointed to successful initiatives that have emerged from this collaborative effort, such as community-led beach clean-ups supported by government policies and market incentives for reducing plastic use. The integration of international scientific research has provided valuable insights and technological innovations, further enhancing the model's effectiveness. These experts emphasized that the model's ability to foster close relationships between state management, community engagement, international cooperation, and market-driven strategies has been instrumental in achieving measurable reductions in ocean plastic waste and improving coordination among different stakeholders.
However, other experts highlighted several areas for improvement, indicating that while the model shows promise, it still faces significant challenges. One of the primary concerns was the need for stronger enforcement mechanisms to ensure compliance with regulations aimed at reducing plastic waste. Experts noted that without robust enforcement, the effectiveness of the model is undermined. Additionally, they called for greater accountability among all stakeholders, stressing that transparency in actions and outcomes is crucial for building trust and ensuring sustained efforts. The need for more robust monitoring and evaluation systems was also underscored, with experts pointing out that reliable data is essential for assessing the impact of interventions and making informed decisions.
Furthermore, the experts emphasized the importance of international cooperation in addressing the transboundary nature of ocean plastic pollution. They noted that plastic waste does not respect national borders, and effective governance requires national and international collaboration. This involves not only sharing knowledge and best practices but also coordinating policies and actions to tackle the problem on a global scale. The experts highlighted examples of successful international partnerships, such as the S2S initiative, that have made some progress in reducing plastic waste. They called for these efforts to be scaled up and replicated to maximize their impact.
While the multi-stakeholder governance model (Fig. 6) shows considerable potential in reducing ocean plastic waste, it requires ongoing refinement and strengthening to achieve its full effectiveness. The insights and recommendations provided by experts offer a roadmap for enhancing the model's impact and ensuring that it can meet the complex and dynamic challenges of ocean plastic pollution. By fostering greater collaboration, accountability, and innovation, the governance model can support long-term sustainability goals and contribute to the global effort to protect our oceans from plastic waste.
This finding supports the comment of Ngoc et al. (2023) who found that the participants observed that “penalties for plastic littering are low and too leniently enforced, especially for businesses. They also believed that stakeholders, including businesses, governments, and consumers are the main actors in tackling the single-use plastic waste problem”.
Despite the above successes, challenges remain. According to participants, over the past five years, there has been a significant increase in plastic waste in Hoi An, highlighting issues regarding its volume, composition, and distribution. Participants emphasized that this surge in plastic waste is closely linked to rapid urbanization and evolving consumer habits, which have led to a rise in the use of single-use plastics such as bags, bottles, and packaging materials. In addition, government officials claimed that “the COVID-19 pandemic has further exacerbated the problem, as changes in consumer behavior during the pandemic have significantly increased the demand for plastic products. The rise in online shopping and food delivery services has led to a substantial increase in the use of plastic packaging and single-use containers, contributing to a significant increase in plastic waste. Moreover, the use of disposable masks, gloves, and other personal protective equipment (PPE) has become more common among citizens” (Interview ID01, Government sector, 2023). These issues have added to the overall plastic waste burden in Hoi An.
Conclusion
Hoi An exemplifies effective multi-stakeholder governance in addressing marine plastic waste. The city's success highlights the importance of collaborative governance mechanisms involving various stakeholders, including the government, businesses, communities, international organizations, and the academic sector, all working together to achieve significant reductions in marine plastic waste. In addition, although the Hoi An Government has implemented policies, regulations, and actions to minimize plastic waste, enforcement of waste management policies can be difficult, as there is still a need for broader public awareness and engagement. Plastic products' convenience and low cost make shifting consumer behavior towards more sustainable practices challenging. Economic and logistical barriers also hinder businesses from fully transitioning to eco-friendly alternatives. However, given the very clear interest individuals level in being provided more information from local governments on plastic management, awareness of certain deficiencies in knowledge about the location of adequate disposal locations and the need for more disposal facilities suggest that there is a significant potential in shifting attitudes and behaviours. While increasing the cost of single-use containers and packaging and imposing strict penalties is envisioned to help, another option is to introduce awareness campaigns and creating a particular ‘fashion’ for the use of re-usable plastics is an alternative that can also lead to developing a positive ‘peer pressure’, especially among young customers. That would require using age-appropriate communication channels and providing sound alternatives and designs for reusable containers that are convenient, affordable and perceived as ‘stylish’ (e.g. water bottles, bags, food cooler bags). Especially with water bottles, providing access to water fountains where these bottles can be refilled and also stations, where containers can be washed, would enhance the use of reusable containers. This, coupled with the introduction of container deposits at local stores could help both awareness and actual decrease of the introduction of plastic waste to the environment. Overall, practicality and convenience is an important factor that needs to be ensured so that the introduced solutions are effective.
To make Hoi An’s plastic waste management even more effective, further enhancing stakeholder coordination and community engagement is necessary. Currently, various waste management initiatives are causing overlapping efforts and fragmentation. Establishing a dedicated task force, including key stakeholders such as local government, public service companies, environmental NGOs, and local businesses, would provide centralized oversight. This group should meet regularly to track progress, address challenges, and refine strategies. Additionally, community engagement needs to be strengthened by incorporating participatory planning into project design. This approach ensures that community members have a voice in decisions affecting their local environment, fostering both accountability and community buy-in.
While the proposed measures are promising, the research has its own limitations. First, the study focuses primarily on the policies and practices of Hoi An, which may limit the applicability of the findings to other regions with different socio-economic contexts or waste management systems. Additionally, more data on long-term behavioral changes, the effectiveness of enforcement mechanisms, and the scalability of the city’s strategies would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the issue. Finally, some interviews were conducted via Zoom due to COVID-19, which was a limitation as virtual settings lacked personal interaction, non-verbal cues, and were affected by technical issues, impacting the depth of responses.
Future research could explore how these governance models might be adapted to other coastal cities facing similar challenges with marine plastic waste. Expanding the geographic scope of the study, incorporating more quantitative analysis of public awareness campaigns, and investigating economic incentives for businesses to adopt eco-friendly practices would help provide deeper insights. Exploring how digital technologies or mobile platforms can enhance public engagement and real-time monitoring of plastic waste reduction could also offer innovative directions for future studies.
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