Management Motivation and Landscape Interpretation of the Geumcheon-Ggugok in Jinju

Origin and acceptance of Gugok

Neo-Confucianism, which was introduced to Korea at the end of the Goryeo Dynasty, brought about great ideological changes, and in particular had a substantial influence on society during the Joseon Dynasty, when Confucianism was made a national policy. Zhuzi (Zhu Xi; 1130–1200) of the Southern Song Dynasty in China, who compiled Neo-Confucianism within Confucian thought and life, could not help but become an object of respect. Respect for him did not stop at reverence for his ideas, but also led to interest in his works and life. One of things on which this interest had been focused was Mui-Gugok.

Zhuzi lived in seclusion around Mt. Mui and managed Mui-Gugok. In 1183, he built the pavilion Mui- in Gok 5 of Mui-Gugok. At this pavilion, he focused on preaching and writing, and his writings during this time were compiled in Mui-Jeongsa-Japyeong. In 1184, he wrote the origin of Gugok, Mui-Gugok-Doga, which explained the step-by-step process of studying ethics through a description of the areas around nine Goks (Gugok) of Mt. Mui. To Zhuzi, the natural scenery around Mt. Mui had great significance as a space for discovering and studying the Neo-Confucian order. His poetry and prose became the basis for Mui-Gugok-Do (paintings depicting Mui-Gugok), a literary and artistic tradition that was gradually introduced into Korea (Kim et al., 2023).

The Gugok culture, which originated in China, was not actively managed after Zhuzi and declined. However, in Korea, many Gugok Gardens were managed due to the formation of the Neo-Confucian worldview and the popularity of Zhuzi’s doctrines during the Joseon Dynasty. Gugok Gardens were established as a type of traditional landscape culture representing the late Joseon Dynasty. Most of the places where these Gugok Gardens are located have long been known as scenic spots. Including Toegye Yi Hwang and Yulgok Yi I (1536–1584), who were called great scholars, later literati with roots in their schools, managed Gugok Gardens in more than 100 locations across the country until the end of the Joseon Dynasty. However, most of them were private Gugok Gardens with a focus on the scenic beauty of the places. In contrast, Boosa was found to have managed Geumcheon-Gugok in a unique way, using public-oriented Hyangyak as the basic framework. This is noteworthy as having a value that differentiates it from other Gugok Gardens.

Natural landscape system of Geumcheon-Gugok

Two streams of water originating from Mt. Deogyusan merge in Anui to form Dongcheon, and flow south to merge with Imcheon and reach Hamyang to form Namgye. The downstream merges with the water flowing from the north of Mt. Jirisan to become Eomcheon, passes through Utan in Sancheong, reaches Danseong, merges with Simcheon, becomes Dankyecheon, and then becomes Yangcheon, which flows into Jinju.

It is called Cheongcheon to the west of Jinju, and Namgang River (Geumcheon) to the south. This Namgang River flows around Mt. Worasan in Geumsan-myeon, passes through Jeongamjin in Uiryeong, and Pungtan in Haman before flowing into the Nakdong River. The mountain range that defines this stream extends from Mt. Deogyusan above to Mt. Gamaksan in Uiryeong, and below from Mt. Jirisan to Mt. Bunsan and Mt. Shineosan in Gimhae.

The Namgang River winds around Geumsan-myeon at the foot of Mt. Worasan, starting from Hwangnyu-tan (Hwangryu-yeon), Gok 2 of Geumcheon-Gugok, and extending for about 30 ri (approx. 11.78 km) to Gabang-ri, Gwangae-ri, and Namseong-ri in the north and to Jumtan to the south. This appears to protect each direction while relying on Mt. Worasan, which “stands tall in the east and looks like a conch shell amidst white clouds” (Jo, S.). The villages that dot the banks of the Nam River overlook Mt. Worasan nearby and three mountains (Bangjangsan, Jiphyeonsan, and Waryongsan) in the distance. The villages around Geumcheon-Gugok extend for about 30 ri (11.78 km) from the south, and include Soksa, Songbaek, Jungcheon, Deokpyeong, Seokgyo, Namseong, Gidong, Gabang-ri, and Ansimbang.

Promotion of post-war scholarship

Boosa Seong Yeo-sin, who managed Geumcheon-Gugok, was a disciple of Nammyeong Cho Sik and made a name for himself from a young age for his scholarship and writing. Never holding a government position, he stayed in his hometown and worked to improve local customs. At the age of 47 (1592), he fled his hometown during the Japanese invasion (Imjin War). When there was another Japanese invasion (Jeongyu War) in 1597, he stayed in Geumneung, returning to his hometown of Geumsan, Jinju at the age of 54 (1599).

Boosa, who returned to Geumsan, settled in Namseong Village near Geumcheon. As a disciple of Nammyeong, he participated in the reconstruction of Deokcheon-Seowon (Confucian Academy) and took the lead in restoring the customs that had been destroyed by the Japanese invasions based on the proprieties established by Nammyeong. During this period, he gave up his aspirations of administering affairs of state as a bureaucrat, pursuing a life of seclusion in nature.

As Boosa was concerned about the significant change in customs and decline in learning after the Imjin War and the Jeongyu War, he worked hard to educate younger students. He built Boosa-jeongsa Pavilion (now Busajeong; Fig. 2a) and Bangujeong Pavilion (Fig. 2b) on a site near his house in 1600 (Figs. 3, 4, and 5). This has the same meaning as Zhuzi’s establishment of Mui-Jeongsa in Gok 5 of Mui-Gugok; Boosa established pavilions in Gok 7 of Geumcheon-Gugok and used them as a base for academic research. In the Memoirs of Busajip, he said, “develop norms for cultivating talented people, build libraries such as Yangmong and Jihak, teach them in order, and encourage them to advance based on their talents...” His thoughts led to practical actions that promoted learning by creating libraries including Yangmongjae (Fig. 2e) and Jihakjae (Fig. 2f) Pavilions along with Boosa-Jeongsa Pavilion in Geumcheon-Gugok.

Fig. 2

Pavilions around the Geumcheon-Gugok.

Fig. 3

Geumcheon-Gugok on the Map in 1911 (http://www.turi.re.kr).

Fig. 4

Geumcheon-Gugok on the Map in 1970 (http://map.ngii.go.kr/).

Fig. 5

Geumcheon-Gugok on the 3D Map in 2023 (www.earth.google.com).

Afterwards, the Busajeong area was used as a place for scholars around Jinju to socialize and study, but after a fire in 1785, only Busajeong Pavilion remained. What is now Busajeong Pavilion, renovated in 1903, is a tile-roofed timber house: a hipped-and-gable roof with double eaves, and 4 rooms on the front and 2 rooms on the sides. Starting with Bangujeong in 1995, Yangmongjae and Jihakjae were sequentially restored, and in 2003, the wall and stonework were restored to its current appearance (Fig. 2c).

For 10 years starting in 1622, Boosa led the first compilation of Jinyangji, the local geography of Jinju, together with Ha Jing, Jo Gyeom, and Park Min. He died in 1632 in Busajeong at the age of 87, and after his death, was enshrined in Imcheon-Seowon (Figs. 2g, 7a, 7c) near Geumcheon-Gugok in Jinju, and Mulgye-Seowon in Changnyeong.

Fig. 7

Geumcheon-Gugok on the old map of the Joseon Dynasty (part of the map, https://kyu.snu.ac.kr/).

Aspiration for a communal utopia

In Gugoksi-Byeongseo of Busajip, written at the age of 71 (1616), Boosa compared China’s Mt. Mui (Mt. Wuyi) with Korea’s Mt. Bangjangsan (Mt. Duryusan; Mt. Jirisan) and stated that the landscape of Geumcheon-Gugok could compare favorably with the mountain. He also matched Cheongcheon (Qingchuan) Stream on Mt. Mui with Geumcheon Stream in Jinju, and compared their outstanding scenery. Boosa said, “The source of Geumcheon originates from Mt. Duryu, flows down in a winding path to become Cheongcheon, flows down to become Namgang, and flows down again to finally become Geumcheon. In that case, the nine Goks (Gugok) of Geumcheon are indeed derived from all the valleys of Mt. Duryu, so how can they fall short in comparison with those formed by a thousand layers of water flowing down from Mt. Mui? Now, I have already named the place Gugoksu, recited its purpose in Gugoksi poems, and written it in the lower part of our Dongyak (village code).”

Moreover, at the end of Gugoksi-Byeongseo, he expresses his utopia as follows. “Our village people observe the village code, practice beautiful customs together, relax in the scenic area (around Geumcheon-Gugok), admire outstanding historical sites, and naturally enjoy the ancient world in a peaceful and calm manner... While I do and will do these things in the morning and evening, in spring and fall, and this year and in the next year, I will wander about and enjoy this area until the end of my life, not even realizing that my life is coming to an end. Is there anything better than this joy between heaven and earth?”

As such, in Boosa’s writings, we get a sense of his will to set up and manage Geumcheon-Gugok to soothe the hearts of the people in the devastated village after the wars and create an ideal place for community life. It further served as an opportunity to prepare the Geumsan-Dongyak, a practical village code, which is clearly revealed in the following writing in Geumsan-Dongyak Byeongseo of Busajip.

He wrote, “The reason why Geumsan was merged with Daeyeochon to form one village was because after the war, nine out of ten houses were empty. These two villages were connected to each other with a bend of Mt. Worasan as their border, similar to the situation in which the Teng Dynasty was located between the Qi and Chu Dynasties. Therefore, they were merged into one and named “Geumsan”...It was said that the customs of our village were beautiful in the old days, as keeping good customs in the village was considered beautiful. How can a person’s nature, which was beautiful in the past, not be beautiful now?... First, it was based on the provisions of Lushi Village Codes, and then it was imitating the regulations of Toegye-Dongyak. Then, we seek to restore the customs of remote antiquity that were passed down to our village based on it...” Boosa established the Geumsan-Dongyak centered on Mt. Worasan and villages around Geumcheon-Gugok, and based on this, dreamed of a new and ideal community village led by the villagers.

Gok 1 Bonghakdae

“Bonghakdae is located to the south of Baekdong. There is a large field to the west, and a long forest to the south. Two rivers flow into this with streams of blue water, and three mountains rise from the green forests. High and green cliffs surround it on both sides, and hundreds of green pine trees (Pinus Densiflora) throw shadows on the front and back. As the Bonghwangdae and Hwanghakru Pavilions create a harmonious scenery with each other, it was named Bonghakdae.” (Gugoksi-Byeongseo)

Baekdong refers to what is now Songbaek-ri, Geumsanmyeon, and is located across from Jinju Stadium. The two rivers represent the landscape where the Namgang and Yeongcheon rivers merge. The three mountains may be seen as a symbolic representation of the legendary Mt. Samshinsan, and can also be interpreted as referring to Jirisan (or Bangjangsan), Jiphyeonsan, and Waryongsan, which are famous local mountains that can be seen when you climb up Bonghakdae. Bonghakdae still maintains its original landscape, with high cliffs made up of layers of sedimentary rocks. At that time, it appears that Pinus Densiflora were the dominant species in Bonghakdae, but today the vegetation in the landscape is dominated by Quercus species (Fig. 6-①).

Gok 2 Hwangryuyeon

“Hwangryuyeon is located on the north side of Bonghakdae. Its deep parts must be crossed by boat, while its shallow parts can be crossed on foot.” (Gugoksi-Byeongseo)

It is located 1.2km downstream of Geumcheon from Bonghakdae, Gok 1. It is indicated as Hwangryujin Ferry on old maps from the Joseon Dynasty, indicating that there was a ferry site here (Figs. 7a, 7c). “Yeon” refers to a deep and concave pond formed at the point where a river curves around. Greenhouse facilities have been built on the sands which they used to moor boats alongside, but a small cliff remains where Geumcheon flows around, allowing us to guess what the old scenery might have looked like (Fig. 6-②).

Gok 3 Eopungjeong

“Eopungjeong is on the west side of Suanjeong Pavilion. Lofty rocks overlooks a long dragon’s den, with very tall pine trees on top of them. There used to be a pavilion, but now there isn’t one. It is a popular scenic area in this region, so there are often many people hanging here out or having small social gatherings with a drink. It is difficult to look down from Eopungjeong because the height is dizzying.” (Gugoksi-Byeongseo)

Suanjeong was Jeong Eun-bu’s annex garden, located on Changam in Geumsan Village, Jinju (http://db.itkc.or.kr/). Considering that the name of this Gok is Eopungjeong, it seems that there was originally a pavilion here. Although it is not higher than Bonghakdae, Gok 1, it is a beautiful cliff formed along the Geumcheon Stream, with an excellent view. It appears that this place was known as a local scenic spot visited by many people. The pine trees of that time can no longer be found, and the current vegetation mainly consists of broad-leaved forests (Fig. 6-③).

Gok 4 Waunloe

“Waunloe is located about 10 ri (approx. 3.93 km) across the Jangdam area, west of Bukpyeong. There is a very large flat and lush area at the edge of the rapids, where the villagers perform the Sugye Ritual in both spring and fall.” (Gugoksi-Byeongseo)

Waun means a hermit life of hiding away from the world. Since Jangdam means a long-shaped pond, it seems to refer to Geumhoji Pond in what is now Geumsanmyeon. Geumhoji is also marked on topographic maps from the Japanese colonial period (Fig. 3). In the Waunloe area, urbanization has progressed significantly, making it difficult to find its traces (Fig. 6-④). However, since the locations of Gok 3 and Gok 5 are exact, Waunloe, Gok 4, should be located in between them, with Geumhoji to the east and Geumcheon to the west. Accordingly, it can be said that Waunloe refers to the mountain stream located between Geumhoji in the east of Eopungjeong (Gok 3) and Geumcheon in the west. “Loe” a landscape element of streams, refers to a shallow and fast current flowing over sand and stones (Lim and So, 2016).

Sugye Ritual is a custom of preventing ominous disasters by hanging out and rambling by the water, and is closely related to a ritual practiced by Wang Xizhi in Lanting Pavilion during the Jin Dynasty. Boosa may have imagined Wang, who had enjoyed the arts in nature, in the Waunloe, Gok 4.

Gok 5 Jeokbyeokman

“Someone said, ‘Wugu (O-gok in Korean) is to the east. It is said that long ago, Chibi (Jeokbyeok in Korean; Red Cliffs) was in the Kingdom of Wu (O in Korean), so this name was derived from the Chinese character, Wu.’ I don’t know if this is true or not. It was named Jeokbyeok because it is surrounded by red cliffs to the east. There are ponds below and above Jeokbyeok. When the water rises in spring in the passage where fish travel between the two ponds, fishermen gather there with their nets.” (Gugoksi-Byeongseo)

Chibi is located on the Yangtze River in China was where Zhou Yu defeated Cao Cao’s army during the Three Kingdoms period. Moreover, there is a famous anecdote about Su Shi, a literatus during the Song Dynasty, enjoying boating on the Chibi river. Boosa described the scenery of Gok 5 as outstanding, saying that it reminded him of Chibi (Jeokbyeok), which had been said to be one of China’s greatest historical-landscapes. Even now, the red cliffs made of sedimentary rock are not high, but extend long, in the shape of a man (Fig. 6-⑤). “Man (bay)” refers to an area where water curves toward the land like a bow. At that time, the water from Geumcheon Stream must have flowed in and out, forming a pond under the red cliffs, but now it is difficult to find traces of it due to the construction of embankment.

Gok 6 Songgangjin

“Since it is located below the Songgang Hill, it was named Song, and also called Yongdang. In the past, my friend Ha Jasang built a house and lived there, but it no longer exists. In the past, Fulizi lived in seclusion in the Song River (Songgang River in Korean), so the term Ghangho-Sanin (those who live a secluded life in the countryside) was coined. There are ships at the ferry.” (Gugoksi-Byeongseo)

Lu Guimeng (?-881) from Suzhou during the Tang Dynasty lived free from worldly cares in seclusion in Fuli Village on the Song River. Therefore, Boosa called himself Ghangho-Sanin and considered Songgangjin, which had the same name as the place where Lu lived, as a place for hermits.

Songgangjin is a ferry site, but its location is the most ambiguous of the Geumcheon-Gugok (Nine Goks in Geumchoen). Place names of Songgang or Yongdang do not appear in literature or old maps. However, by checking Haedong-jido and Bibyeonsa-in-bangan-jido, which are old maps of the Joseon Dynasty, only one place marked as a waterway (ferry site) is found in the Geumcheon-Gugok area (Figs. 7b, 7c). This waterway is clearly marked on the topographical map of 1911, and the place name is written next to it as “Namsong” (Fig. 3). Its location is estimated to be about 0.5 km downstream from Jeokbyeokman, Gok 5. However, since the distance between Gok 5 and Gok 7 is approximately 3.5km, and there may have been other ferries, the exact location of Gok 6 cannot be determined. Currently, Geumsangyo Bridge has been built near Gok 4, and the old ferry site has disappeared without a trace (Fig. 6-⑥).

Gok 7 Banguju

“Banguju lies east of Busajeong Pavilion. In the summer of 1597, I took refuge in Geumneung, but returned to my hometown in the spring of 1600, and I escaped the summer heat here. So I named this place Bangu.” (Gugoksi-Byeongseo)

In Bangujeonggi of Busajip, he said, “It is located 1 ri (approx. 392.7 m) upstream of Imgangjeong. It is densely covered with several beautiful trees. As the scenery above the river was excellent in silence, I settled there and named it Bangu.” The literal translation of “Bangu” is to be friends with gulls, and like gulls, it means living in and enjoying nature beyond the interests of the secular society. As this is considered to be in line with the life of seclusion in nature the Confucian scholars of the Joseon Dynasty sought to pursue, there are many pavilions called “Bangujeong” throughout Korea. Boosa also expressed his intent to build Bangujeong near Gok 7, by quoting a poem by Huang Tingjian (a literatus from the Song Dynasty): “The water in the fields of Jiangnan is bluer than the sky, and gulls in the middle are as leisurely as me.” In Gugoksi poem, he also said, “I realize that 7 Gok are the places where I will go into retirement.”

In the name of Gok 7, Banguju, the suffix “ju” refers to a islet made of sand at the edge or in the middle of a river, indicating that the name Bangujeong reflects the natural scenery. Boosa describes the scenery of Banguju this way in Bangujeonggi: “One day, my steps reached the edge of a bamboo forest on the eastern lake. The trees cast a deep shade, the shining waves were rolling dazzlingly, and green willows were thick on the three white islets made of sandbanks. As I wandered around with my hat pulled back, it felt like my body had entered a painting. It was truly a place worth wandering around and appreciating.”

The location of Gok 7 is estimated to be along Geumcheon Stream, north of Namseong Village, where Bangujeong and Busajeong are located. Sandbanks are still formed today, allowing us to guess what the landscape might have been at the time. (Fig. 6-⑦).

Gok 8 Imgangjeong

“It lies east of Eupbyeokdang Pavilion. The stream that flows from under the pavilion straight to the front of Balbong has been called Yeonwoogye since ancient times. Looking at it now, the green mountain exposes its ridges, the blue water flows heavily, and the strange shapes are exquisite in the hazy fog, just like the shape of the thick ink in paintings. Therefore, I named it Imgangjeong.” (Gugoksi-Byeongseo)

Imgangjeong is a pavilion located in Baeng-ri, Geumsan-myeon, Jinju-si. Jinyangji compiled by Boosa says, “It is adjacent to the Nam River and faces Mt. Worasan, so every year when the good time comes, the local people hang out over a drink here.”

Boosa’s mentor, Nammyeong, describes the outstanding scenery around Imgangjeong in Yeongmodanggi of Nammyeongjip, “The place where water from ten thousand valleys of Mt. Duryusan (Mt. Jirisan) flows in and meanders to become Cheongcheon is where Chokseokru Pavilion in Jinju is located. Then, the water flows to the southeast, swallowing and spitting out wide fields, and runs down a distance of several tens of ri to Gabang-ri Village. At the entrance to the village, the dark blue water spreads out like a mirror, and the green mountain appears to reveal its ridges. A magnificent house towered on top of it, with a tablet called Eupbeok hung there.”

Imgangjeong Pavilion has been destroyed, and its location cannot be determined at present. However, since according to Bangujeonggi, Imgangjeong is located 1 ri (approx. 392.7 m) downstream from Bangujeong, the location can be roughly estimated. In the area along Geumcheon Stream, northeast of Namseong Village where Bangujeong is located, the streambed changes when the stream water rises. If the pavilion had been built here, it would have been located on a hill adjacent to the stream. Therefore, it is estimated to have been on a hill of the northeast slope, about 0.4 km away from Bangujeong (Fig. 6-⑧).

Gok 9 Gyeongsimdam

“There is Daedun-dong Village to the north of Mt. Worasan, with Gyeongsimdam at the entrance of the village. There are cliffs on the left and right of Gyeongsimdam. The left-side cliff is called Hakseoam, and the right side one is called Gyeongsinam. When you get here, you find the mountain even greener and the water even greener. As the mountain and water color each other, there are no other colors, with green willows and white sand reflected over the water, and no other objects can be seen. I tried to build a pavilion consisting of a few rooms on top of Hakseoam, but it was not possible.” (Gugoksi-Byeongseo)

“Dam” is a type of landscape that refers to a specific point in a meandering stream where the flow speed is slow and forms a calm, wide, and deep pond. (Lim and So, 2016). Gyeongsimdam, which is located at the furthest point downstream of Geumcheon-Gugok, is a scenic spot with a lake-like stream and strangely shaped cliffs. Gyeongsimdam and the two rock cliffs on its left and right, Hakseoam and Gyeongsinam, still remain, their original forms intact (Fig. 6-⑨).

The area around the Gok 9, Gyeongsimdam, has such beautiful scenery that Boosa sought to build another pavilion. In his Gugoksi Poem, he recited, “The more I visit Gugok, the more beautiful the scenery becomes. In comparison to Mui-Gugok, I ask which one is better.” Although he managed Geumcheon-Gugok by imitating Mui-Gugok of Zhuzi, he was proud that the scenery could actually be better than that of Mui-Gugok. In the nine Goks (Gugok) of Geumcheon-Gugok, Boosa may have been thinking of the utopia where immortals live, hanging out with villagers every season, which he aimed for.