This study was conducted from September to November, 2018 and explored and examined the content of Gwanhyuji (灌畦志), a part that introduced crops in Imwongyeongjeji (林園經濟志, one of many agricultural books in the Joseon Dynasty period that tell the stories and values of traditional life) and has been recognized as a historical content. In order to utilize historical and cultural resources with humanistic themes based on historical stories, folk stories and traditional knowledge written in ancient documents, documents on crops in Imwongyeongjeji, a voluminous encyclopedia written by Seo, Yoo-Ku (徐有榘, 1764–1845) between the late 18th century and the early 19th century were reviewed, and crops that connect the past and present and tell stories were selected and listed based on Gwanhyuji that introduced vegetables to utilize in urban agriculture (Fig. 1).

As facilities that are created for relaxation and production in vegetable gardens has been utilized widely, the purposes of using urban vegetable gardens have been diversified from producing crops to tending spaces for landscaping purposes and there is also a growing need for utilizing native resources (Hong et al., 2018). Against this backdrop, this study aimed to develop a model for vegetable gardens in order to expand the diversity of urban gardens and to realize urban agriculture as a culture that embraces publicness with its focus shifting from personal perspectives to community-based or socio-cultural perspectives.

Gwanhyuji contains information on farming vegetables and medicinal herbs, and shows the list of practical crops for fields that were selected and summarized from various agricultural books. ‘Hyu (畦)’ in Gwanhyuji (灌畦志) means a ridge, a key part in fields, and explains its landscaping values and management convenience as an eco-friendly farming technique in detail. For this reason, this study aimed to utilize not only popular knowledge but also native resources in exploring crops in order to conserve and distribute traditional values through urban agriculture and to promote the humanistic values of urban agriculture by utilizing plants that have cultural and historical contexts in urban agriculture without simply focusing on its physical purposes such as production. This study also attempted to select crops that embrace overall aspects including the time and space of actions, stories and subjects, and reflect social and cultural contexts that have been passed down by certain communities.

This study coded data through comparison and analysis in the process of data analysis based on the grounded theory suggested by Glaser and Strauss (1967), and developed a framework based on the results to formulate a theory using a qualitative research methodology in the process of interpretative inquiry. Popularity was assessed through a questionnaire survey. First, crops (traditionality) mentioned in Imwongyeongjeji-Gwanhyuji, an ancient document (Seo, 2010), were listed according to their Korean and scientific name based on their Chinese character name. This study selected crops that have stories among those that were mentioned in folk songs such as Nonggawalryungga (農家月令歌) and Heungboga (興甫歌), and crops that were found to have values as ecological resources (historicality) through traditional knowledge in documents such as Donguibogam (東醫寶鑑) and Imwongyeongjeji (Yeom et al., 2011). At the same time, crops of which effects were identified and that were repeatedly introduced were prioritized in this study among native resources that have stories in which people are highly interested in modern society such as antioxidant effects (health functionality; Rural development administration-National academy of agricultural sciences, 2014) and Healthful crops in mountains and fields that introduces anti-aging crops (Jang, 2009). Through a questionnaire survey, crops that urban residents preferred were identified, and their availability (popularity) in markets was examined. According to these criteria, crops that were selected more than three times in each item were finally selected (Fig. 2).

Imwongyeongjeji written by Seo, Yoo-Ku introduced the most basic things in human life (Kim, 2015), added ‘namuls (edible wild vegetables)’ in Joseon that were not mentioned in the Chinese literature and classified 28 wild plants of which sprouts were used to cook side dishes into a separate item, recognizing namuls as one of the key characteristics of Joseon foods. In Gwanhyuji composed of four books, 33 vegetables that were quoted in a total of 44 documents were mentioned in traditional agricultural books, and plants of which leaves and sprouts were used to cook side dishes were introduced as a group of namuls, unique Joseon foods. In addition, 27 types of plants that grow on mountains and fields were classified into the category of wild vegetables (Table 1). Other than those that grow on the ground, 12 types of namuls that grow in seas were also included in the category of vegetables, but since it is not easy to grow them in urban gardens, they were excluded from the category along with crops that grow in wetlands. Fruit-bearing plants (蓏類), unique edible plants in East Asia were separately categorized, and traditional medicinal herbs in Joseon that were used to cook namul side dishes such as Platycodon grandiflorum, Angelica gigas, Senna tora, Codonopsis lanceolata (Siebold & Zucc) Trautv., Glehnia littoralis, Arctium lappa L. and Plantango asiatica L. were found to be plants that commonly grew on mountains and fields in Joseon (Kim, 2015). The first record on vegetables used in Korea is Samgukyusa (三國遺事) on the myth of the creation of the first kingdom of Korea (Gojoseon) in which Artemisia princeps and Allium sativum were mentioned, and on the myth of the founding monarch of Shilla, Bak Hyeokgeose, which starts from Lagenaria leucantha (瓟; Lee, 1999). There are records on Lactuca sativa, Dioscorea batatas and Raphanus sativus in the period of the Three States; Oenanthe javanica, Cucumis sativus L. and Cucumis melo var. makuwa in the period of the Unified Shilla; and Cucumis sativus L., Solanum melongena, Raphanus sativus, Allium fistulosum L., Malva verticillata L., Lagenaria leucantha, Brasenia schreberi, Codonopsis lanceolata (Siebold & Zucc) Trautv., Allium sativum for. pekinense Makino, Pyrus serotina Rehder, Oenanthe javanica, Acorus calamus, Sanguisorba officinalis, Portulaca oleracea, Artemisia princeps, Sagittaria sagittifolia, Phytolacca esculenta VanHoutte, Xanthium strumarium, Panax ginseng, Chrysanthemum morifolium, Achyranthes japonica, Benicasa hispida, Allium fistulosum L., Plantango asiatica L., Asarum sieboldii Miq, Akebia quinata, Arctium lappa L., etc. in the period of Goryeo (Lee, 1999). Vegetables are crops that have been cultivated by people among namuls (wild vegetables) in nature. Namul is a native Korean word, and is connected to the “long-held knowledge system” discussed in evolutionary anthropology (Shin, 2012). These crops are suitable for the natural characteristics of this region, and contain humanistic implications such as management convenience, aesthetic and seasonal values, and promotion of public welfare such as flowers and fruits, which demonstrates the effective values of vegetable gardens that people in modern times want.

Each crop that grows in vegetable gardens has its own story, and the story has long been passed down orally. The storytelling that this study focused on is not to recite events over time, but to unfold values obtained after overcoming changes and hardships in life or the meaning of life obtained in the process. This study attempted to deliver messages that contain these values and meaning and are easily understandable based on the framework of traditional stories (Im, 2011), and to create a bond of sympathy in the form of communication by increasing people’s interest in crops.

The first record reviewed in this study was a story about Allium fistulosum L., Chrysanthemum coronarium L., Lactuca sativa, Capsicum annum, Solanum melongena, Cucurbita spp. and Lagenaria leucantha mentioned in Nonggawalryungga (農家月令歌). Our ancestors raised their immunity and overcame spring fever by picking and seasoning abundant wild vegetables (namuls) in spring on mountains and fields, eating those namuls in daily life. In particular, sprouts in spring mostly have a bitter taste which reduces the fever and relieves drowsy and sluggish feelings, and stimulates people’s appetite. For this reason, most families had a vegetable garden within their houses in the past, and one of the most basic and general foods in our daily meals is vegetables including mushroom and tree shoots (Fig. 3). Nonggawalryungga is the song that our ancestors enjoyed, and in particular the lyrics of the first, second and third months of the year contains stories about namuls. “The first month of the year - Add regrowing a lettuce and water parsley to radish sprouts. It looks fresh and no need to envy the five spicy vegetables. Boil dried wild vegetables. They give six flavors. The second month of the year - Too early to pick wild vegetables on mountains. Pick namuls on fields instead. Korean lettuces, a lettuce and artemisia. Wild chive kimchi and shepherd’s purse soup raise your appetite. The third month of the year - Plant pumpkin under fences, gourd under eaves, wax gourd near walls. They will creep over the walls. Plant white radish, cabbage, curled mallow, lettuce, chili, eggplant, green onion and garlic on every corner of the ground, Cut pussy willow and make fences. Protect them from dogs and chickens, and then they will grow thickly. Make a separate field for cucumber, and manure the field fully. There’s nothing better than cucumber as a summer side dish.”

Another record that this study reviewed was Baktaryeong in Heungboga (興甫歌), one of the twelve original pieces of pansori, in which Malva verticillata (described as 破樓草) and Lactuca sativa (described as 越江草) were mentioned to sing the hidden charms of ordinary things with the story of Goryeo women who were taken to the Yuan Dynasty. In Donguibogam (東醫寶鑑), Allium fistulosum and Spinacia oleracea (described as 菠菱菜) were introduced as a plant that relaxes the five viscera. Gwanhyuji (灌畦志) in Imwongyeongjeji (林園經濟志) written by Seo, Yoo-Ku introduced medicinal herbs found on mountains and fields in Joseon including Platycodon grandiflorus, Polygonatum odoratum, Angelica gigas and Ledebouriella seseloides, and tells how Seo cooked side dishes with herbs that he collected from vegetable gardens, mountains and fields including Coriandrum sativum, Amaranthus mangostanus L., Allium tuberosum and Petasites japonicus. Lastly, Gujongbeop (區種法), a farming technique introduced by Seo, and Brassica rapa var. glabra Regel were also briefly summarized in order to suggest efficient ways to manage vegetable gardens in this study (Fig. 3).

Vegetables are a group of herbaceous plants cultivated by humans for food, and there are about 800 vegetables around the world (Lee, 2005). The number of vegetables consumed in Korea reaches over 140 including traditional Korean vegetables that have long been consumed and western vegetables that have been recently introduced to Korea (Lee, 2005). As people’s interest in health increases recently, about 35 crops were suggested as ‘storytelling native resources’ and health functional crops in the list of Healthy plants on mountains and fields that have anti-aging effects (Jang, 2009). They were compared to those of which effects were identified in Donguibogam among crops selected in Gwanhyuji, and the results coincided with the finding of Cha et al. (2006) that they have various effects that can meet urban residents’ needs for healthy foods (Table 2).

Based on Imwongyeongjeji, a historical content that was written by Seo, Yoo-Ku, crops that tell the stories and values of traditional life in Korea were selected and people’s preference was surveyed. According to the results of a questionnaire survey that was conducted during the 7th Urban Agriculture Expo in Korea in 2018, visitors were found to prefer vegetables the most followed by floricultural plants, herbs and medicinal crops. Among vegetables, Capsicum annuum was preferred the most, followed by Lactuca sativa, Solanum melongena, Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme, Cucumis sativus, Brassica rapa var. glabra Regel, Raphanus sativus, Spinacia oleracea, Daucus carota and Allium fistulosum (Fig. 4). Among herbs and medicinal crops, Rosmarinus officinalis and Lavandula species were preferred the most, followed by Mentha piperascens, Ligularia fischeri, Ocimum basilicum, Angelica gigas and Matricaria chamomilla (Fig. 4). During the interview, photos of crops were shown, and cultivation methods and effects were explained to visitors, and they showed their intention to purchase them. This indicates that they had a low awareness of the name of crops and a low level of knowledge about cultivation methods, which seemed to lead to a lack of diversity in the list of purchased crops, and people were also found to purchase certain crops only.

Crops for urban vegetable gardens were reviewed, and a total of 128 species mentioned in the ancient literature were listed according to their Korean and scientific name based on their Chinese character name, and they were assessed based on the criteria suggested using an interpretative inquiry method including traditionality, historicality, health functionality and popularity. Those who met more than three criteria were selected as a crop that can improve the humanistic value of urban agriculture (Table 3).

Focusing on the list of 128 species, their stories that were recorded in Gwanhyuji were reviewed, and those that were found to show a high healthy functionality and popularity were finally classified as shown in Table 4. They were basically classified based on the classification criteria in Gwanhyuji, and, according to the properties of crops, they were classified into the categories of vegetables, fruits and grasses, vegetables on mountains and fields, medicinal plants and flowers. Those that have overlapping properties were classified into multiple groups.

The properties of crops in Imwongyeongjeji and Donguibogam are divided into the five Qi (五氣): hot (熱) ⋅ warm (溫) ⋅ calm (平) ⋅ cool (凉) ⋅ cold (寒), and their tastes are divided into five tastes (五味): sweet, salty, sour, bitter and spicy. Compared to the properties and efficacy of plants recorded in various documents, they can be used to prevent and treat diseases utilizing their interaction and efficacy in the body of humans (Cha et al., 2006). Ancestors applied the properties and tastes of crops to the treatment of diseases, developed their recipes and consumed them in order to wisely utilize their efficacy. In particular, the consumed amount of vegetables has significantly decreased over time as people’ dietary lifestyle changes.

There were a total of 20 crops that are cold (寒) and have a sweet taste including Foeniculum vulgare, Beta vulgaris, Malva verticillata, Amaranthus mangostanus L., Spinacia oleracea, Oenanthe javanica, Lagenaria leucantha, Lagenaria siceraria var. gourda, Cucumis sativus, Benicasa hispida, Solanum melongena, Hemerocallis fulva, Pteridium aquilinum, Senna tora, Adenophora remotiflora Miq., Asparagus cochinchinensis Merr., Liriope platyphylla, Plantago asiatica, Lilium longiflorum, Althaea rosea. There were four crops that are cold (寒) and have a spicy taste including Foeniculum vulgare, Allium fistulosum, Chenopodium album var. centrorubrum and Platycodon grandiflora and one crop has a sour taste (Physalis alkekengi var. franchetii). A total of nine crops were found to be cold (寒) and have a bitter taste including Aralia elata SEEM, Lactuca sativa, Cucumis sativus, Senna tora L., Asparagus cochinchinensis, Liriope platyphylla, Platycodon grandiflora Jacq., Arctium lappa L., and Lilium long-iflorum Thunb. There were a total of 6 crops that are warm (溫) and have a sweet taste including Stachys japonica Miq., Daucus carota var. sativa, Cucurbita spp., Ligularia fischeri, Angelica gigas Nakai and Rehmannia glutinosa (Gaerth.) Libosch. ex Steud. and 15 crops were found to have a spicy taste including Brassica napus, Capsicum annuum L., Stachys japonica Miq., Coriandrum sativum L., Brassica juncea L., Allium tuberosum Rottler ex Spreng, Daucus carota var. sativa, Zingiber mioga Thunb., Zingiber officinale ROSC, Petasites japonicus, Ligularia fischeri, Angelica gigas Nakai, Mentha piperascens, Caryopteris incana Miq., and Carthamus tinctorius L. Two crops including Allium tuberosum Rottler ex Spreng and Sesamum indicum were found to have a sour taste, and Mentha piperascens and Stachys japonica Miq. were found to have a bitter taste(Table 5). There were a total of 10 crops that were calm (平) and have a sweet taste including Chrysanthemum coronarium L., Codonopsis lanceolata, Daucus carota var. sativa, Ipomoea aquatica, Lagenaria leucantha Rusby, Lagenaria siceraria var. gourda, Luffa cylindrica L., Oenanthe javanica DC., Perilla frutescens var. acuta, and Polygonatum odoratum var. pluriflorum and five crops including Codonopsis lanceolata, Colocasia esculenta L., Daucus carota var. sativa, Perilla frutescens var. acuta, and Petasites japonicus were found to have a spicy taste. Two crops including Achyranthes japonica and Physalis alkekengi var.francheti were found to have a sour taste, and Achyranthes japonica and Arctium lappa were found to have a bitter taste (Table 5). These results coincided with the findings of Cha et al. (2006). The properties (cold, warm, clam) of the selected crops were evenly distributed, and there was no crop that was hot and cool. In addition, the number of crops that have a sweet taste was the highest, followed by spicy and bitter, but there was no vegetable that has a salty taste (Table 5).